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Perception and Cognition > TB9 > Flashcards

TB9 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three mechanisms behind problem solving?

A

Two states - present and end goal
The route between the two may be unclear and complex
The route may contain multiple steps

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2
Q

What is the difference between well defined and ill defined knowledge?

A

Well defined is where all the information is provided for you including the starting position and the end goal, where as ill defined is when the goal is not specified.

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3
Q

What is knowledge lean?

A

You don’t need any previous knowledge as its all the statement provided.

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4
Q

What is knowledge rich?

A

You need to have some prior knowledge about that scenario e.g. playing chess.

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5
Q

Define insight.

A

The point at which a solution to a problem is suddenly seen

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6
Q

Metcalfe studied warmth and insight. What did he find?

A

That when the level of insight was reached, there was higher warmth.

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7
Q

What was was found when studying eye fixations and insight and what area of the brain is activated in insight?

A

Konis and Beesman found there was a activation in the STG and Ellis found there was decrease in eye fixations on the irrelevant letter.

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8
Q

Name the three things necessary of insight facilitation.

A

Hints, Incubation and Sleep.

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9
Q

How does sleep benefit insight?

A

Sleeping on it benefits a task as the solution to the task is found easier and quicker (Wagner).

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10
Q

What is incubation? How does it benefit insight?

A

When you leave a task to focus on something else. It benefits insight as it means that irrelevant information is forgotten.

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11
Q

In what type of tasks was incubation most effective?

A

Creative tasks.

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12
Q

What theory includes encoding, elaboration and constraint relaxation?

A

Representational Change Theory

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13
Q

When doing Knoblich’s matchstick task, why did the participants struggle?

A

Because they had constraints about which matchsticks which could be moved - when these were relaxed, the task was completed with ease.

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14
Q

Which area of the brain is responsible for constraint relaxation?

A

The lateral prefrontal cortex.

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15
Q

What is the name for when brain damage means a task can be performed better?

A

Paradoxical Facilitation

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16
Q

Why can processing complex tasks prove difficult?

A

Limited capacity of the short term memory and there is a bottleneck - only one thing can be completed at any one time.

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17
Q

What is heuristic processing?

A

It is when there is a sacrifice for accuracy due to high complexity and limited time.

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18
Q

Name the two elements of heuristic processing.

A

Hill climbing and means-end analysis.

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19
Q

In what task does planning reduce the number of errors?

A

The tower of london task

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20
Q

What does progress monitoring benefit?

A

It allows us to assess the outcomes and if progress is slow, it means another strategy should be used - results in a switch.

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21
Q

What is an expert?

A

High level of knowledge within a particular domain acquired through systematic study.

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22
Q

What are the three types of similarity?

A

Superficial similarity, structural similarity and procedure;

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23
Q

What processing occurs when you use a similar problem to solve the new one?

A

Analogical Reasoning

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24
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

When you cant look past the main function of the object.

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25
Q

When does experience affect processing?

A

When there is functional fixedness, e.g. when someone completes a hard task first and then an easy task, they find the easy task more difficult (Lichen)

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26
Q

What is the uniformity fallacy?

A

When people assume that all options are equally likely even though they are not.

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27
Q

What are the two aspects of the gestalt approach and what do they mean?

A

Reproductive approach - use existing knowledge and experiences
Productive approach - using novel information to reconstruct the problem.

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28
Q

The right hemisphere is associated with reasoning. If the activity in the left prefrontal cortex is reduced, what affect does this have?

A

It means that the right side has more activation and so the task is completed better.

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29
Q

Why is the left side hindering in reasoning?

A

Because it is important in inhibiting relaxation of constraints.

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30
Q

What was Kahnermann’s dual task theory?

A

S1 = Fast and effortless
S2 = Slow and effortful
Suggests humans are cognitive misers - economical with time and effort.

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31
Q

Which type of reasoning correlates with intelligence?

A

Analogical reasoning

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32
Q

What is judgement?

A

Calculating the likelihood of events from incomplete information.

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33
Q

What is the difference between decisions and judgements?

A

Decisions are based on consequences and judgements are based on accuracy.

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34
Q

State the equation for Bayes Theorem and explain what they mean.

A

Posterior = prior x likelihood
Posterior - probability of the given data
Prior - BASE rate
Likelihood - TEST rate

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35
Q

What are the two problems with every test?

A

You could have a false alarm (says you have it when you don’t) or a miss rate (says you don’t have it when you do).

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36
Q

What do you look at if you have a positive or negative result?

A

If there is a negative result you look at the miss rate and if there is a positive result, you look at the false alarm.

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37
Q

In the bank teller problem, what mistake is made by the participants?

A

There is a mistaken assumption that when two things are put into the sentence, they have greater affect than just one - conjunction fallacy.

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38
Q

In which two studies was the base rate neglected?

A

Lawyer engineer problem and when asked the medical school the likelihood of a disease.

39
Q

What happens if base rate is neglected?

A

The likelihood of someone contracting that disease is unknown.

40
Q

What heuristic is this - assume an object belongs to a specific category?

A

Representative heuristic

41
Q

What is an availability heuristic?

A

Frequencies of events estimated by the ease of retrieval.

42
Q

How does the availability heuristic manifest?

A
  1. direct experiences
  2. emotional response
  3. media coverage
43
Q

Explain the mechanisms behind fast and frugal heuristics?

A

This is when we have a search rule, a stopping rule ad then make the decision. When trying to work out which city is bigger, we search e.g. do we know both of them? If we are only aware of one, there is a stopping rule and we chose the first one. If we know both, we carry on the search until something else makes us stop e.g. one has an international airport and the other one doesn’t.

44
Q

A cab was involved in an accident at night. 85% of the city has green cabs and 15% has blue cabs. An eyewitness said it was a blue cab causing the accident but only has 80% vision at night. What is the probability that the cab is blue?

A

0.15/0.85 x 0.80/0.20 = 41%

45
Q

How does event description affect the probability?

A

If the description was explicit, it draws more attention of the event and so more people are likely to select this option and memory limitations may prevent people remembering relevant information.

46
Q

What is hiatus heuristic?

A

Only customers who have purchased goods recent remain active customers.

47
Q

What is a decision?

A

Choosing a specific option from more than one option.

48
Q

What is the normative theory?

A

Concerned about how people should make decisions.

49
Q

What is the utility theory?

A

How people actually make decisions, based on subjective assessment. When a decision is based entirely on gains and losses.

50
Q

Decisions are influenced by irrelevant aspects of information. What are the two aspects of information which affect decisions and what do they mean?

A
  1. Gain frame condition - a sentence that is worded more positively means that people are more likely to chose that option.
  2. Loss frame condition
51
Q

What are the three assumptions of the prospect theory?

A
  1. reference point - representing current state
  2. individuals are more sensitive to loss than gains - known as loss aversion
  3. individuals overweight rare events
52
Q

What is the sunk-cost effect?

A

Tendency for people to pursue a course of action, even after its proven suboptimal because resources have been put into it.

53
Q

When are decisions overweighted and underweighted?

A

Overeighted when a decision is made on descriptions yet decisions are underweighted when made on experience

54
Q

What is it called when we equally compare the gains and the losses?

A

Loss neutrality

55
Q

What is implicit bias?

A

Overestimation of the duration of the negative emotion.

56
Q

What is omission bias? Provide an example of when this occurred.

A

When there is a preference for inaction when making a decision. Abergg looked at children with lung disease and found the doctors sometimes opted out of choosing the best management strategy and chose to do nothing instead.

57
Q

Why do people circum to the status-quo bias?

A

Because it may require expending effort to change.

58
Q

What are the five main steps decision makers go through?

A
  1. identify attributes relevant to the decision
  2. weight those
  3. identity all possible options
  4. compare them to the attributes
  5. select the option that has the higher utility value
59
Q

Simon suggested rationality of decision making is bounded, what by?

A

Environmental constraints - information costs

Cognitive constraints - short term memory capacity

60
Q

What is the elimination aspects theory?

A

When we eliminate the irrelevant options and then compare the options that are left at the end.

61
Q

How does memory guide decision making?

A

It guides decision making as we use past experiences when making decisions. If we’ve made decisions in the past and received positive feedback from those decisions, then we are likely to make the same decision again.

62
Q

Which type of people are less affected by the sunk-cost effect?

A

Experts

63
Q

What two emotional factors impact decisions and what area of the brain controls this?

A
  1. Anticipated emotion - how you think you may feel in response to something.
  2. Immediate emotion - how you feel after making that decision
    These are controlled by the amygdala and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
64
Q

What occurs when women have amygdala damage (Matino et al)?

A

They have no evidence of loss aversion.

65
Q

Name the three types of reasoning.

A

inductive, deductive and informative

66
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

Drawing general conclusions from premises - can sometimes be incorrect.

67
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

Drawing definite conclusions from tenants that are true.

68
Q

What is informal reasoning?

A

Everyday reasoning based around knowledge and experience.

69
Q

What were the two main types within the Popperian reasoning?

A

Confirmation and falsification

70
Q

What aspect of reasoning was Popperian?

A

Inductive reasoning.

71
Q

What affect did Popperian reasoning have on the Watson 2-4-6 test?

A

When participants guessed the rule and given feedback, if they guessed the incorrect rule but it matched with the rule established there was confirmation that the numbers they had suggested matched the rule yet falsification as the numbers didn’t match the specific rule.

72
Q

What is overfitting?

A

When there is confirmation as the numbers support the rule but the actual rule they think is falsification as it doesn’t match the real rule.

73
Q

When are participants more likely to falsify a hypothesis?

A

When someone else generated the hypothesis. 62% would abandon someone else’s hypothesis and 25% would abandon their own.

74
Q

When does hypothesis testing occur?

A

When the findings are unusual.

75
Q

When do participants switch the theory behind the hypothesis when the results don’t match the hypotheses?

A

When there have been unusual results which have been replicated.

76
Q

What is the binary view?

A

Either affirm or refute the consequent based on the antecedent.

77
Q

What is modus tokens?

A

If P then Q, not Q therefore not P.

78
Q

What is modus ponens?

A

If P then Q, P therefore Q.

79
Q

What is if P then Q, not Q therefore not P?

A

Modus tokens.

80
Q

What happens when there are more counter examples?

A

This led to lower acceptance rate of invalid conclusions.

81
Q

Why should R and 7 be selected from Watson Selection Task?

A

Because R will either confirm or deny the hypothesis and then if it confirms, the 7 will back up whether its fully confirmed.

82
Q

What is a syllogism?

A

Two premises and one conclusion

83
Q

What is it called when you evaluate statements with respect to one’s beliefs? What type of reasoning does it include?

A

Myside bias and informal reasoning.

84
Q

What influences the ability to make complex judgements?

A

IQ

85
Q

What is bounded rationality?

A

Correlation between performance in reasoning tasks and IQ.

86
Q

What are executive control functions?

A

High order functions such as reasoning, planning and decision making.

87
Q

What areas of the brain are important in executive control tasks?

A

Lateral prefrontal cortex.

88
Q

What is the SMH?

A
  1. brain stimulates consequences of any possible decision/ response option
  2. body reacts to simulation, causing appropriate responses, known as somatic markers
  3. brain interprets the somatic markers for possible options
  4. attention focussed on good options for further processing.
89
Q

What are the benefits of SMH?

A

Quick, provides gut feeling and is good when resources are minimal.

90
Q

What happens for SCR in PFC damaged patients?

A

They have no SCR when viewing emotional stimuli.

91
Q

What is the mPFC important for?

A

Stimulates the consequences and interprets the somatic markers.

92
Q

Why do we make mistakes in conditional reasoning?

A

Because we use world knowledge inappropriately.

93
Q

Within fast and frugal heuristics, what do humans do?

A

They use rapid heuristics most of the time ti produce correct responses.

Perception and Cognition (3 decks)

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