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Complex Cognition > TASK 8 - COOPERATION > Flashcards

TASK 8 - COOPERATION Flashcards

1
Q

cooperation

A

= we give up time we could be devoting to other purposes, we invest cognitive or physical effort, and we may also contribute financially

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2
Q

evolution of cooperation

A
  • capacity for cooperation can evolve within a population
  • nice rules begin by cooperating –> were preyed upon by nasty strategies
  • nasty rules begin by defecting –> died out when there was no prey left
  • most successful strategy tit-for-tat
  • norm stabilising mechanisms: diffuse costly punishment + reputational mechanisms facilitate trust, fairness, cooperation
  • -> with increasing community size: less reputation, more punishment to maintain fairness
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3
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- consideration of others

A
  • less cooperation when known that other would cooperate
  • less cooperation when perspective taking & more consideration
  • thinking harder about a task reduces cooperation (more likely to behave fairly when less capacity for thinking)
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4
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- empathy

A
  • promotes prosocial behaviour
  • empathetic failures: when individual could feel empathy but doesn’t due to salient social factors
  • influenced by norms and emotions before encounter, by your personality
  • might be insufficient to produce pro-social behaviour
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5
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- fear

A

1) fear of being taken for sucker (being taken advantage of)
2. fear of being punished (being excluded for being egoistic)
- once fear is removed people behave in greedy fashion -> greed has stronger effects than fear

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6
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- social value orientation

A
  • individualist: maximise own gains (same number of each type)
  • prosocial: maximise joint gain, equality in outcomes (most upward, fewest downward counterfactuals –> more cooperation)
  • competitors: maximise relative gain (= difference between one’s own and the other’s outcome) (reversed pattern as compared to prosocial)
  • values can be learned
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7
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- trust

A
  • trust leads to increased cooperation
  • -> depends on reputation of person
  • -> when played against same player
  • emotions can affect trust (therefore cooperation) –> anger, happiness & gratitude
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8
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- generosity

A
  • noise can ruin successful ti-for-tat

- can be solved by adding generosity or forgiveness (TIT+)

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9
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- communication

A
  • increases cooperation
  • -> promotes group solidarity
  • -> allows expression of commitment
  • can help people with low-trust disposition
  • can eliminate noise effects
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10
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- emotions - appraisal theory

A

= emotions are adaptive responses elicited based on how an agent evaluates its situation

(1) appraisal –> emotions –> (2) action
1) appraisals = input of emotional experience; cognitive antecedents to experience of emotion
- occur in response to external stimuli, thoughts; are directly related to motivational goals of the agent
2) action tendency = behavioural output; adaptive responses to appraisal

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11
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- emotions - guilt

A

1) appraisal that one has failed to live up to the expectations of a relationship partner
2) reparative action tendencies
- can encourage trust & cooperation
- brain areas guilt averse:
- -> activity in insula, ACC, DLPFC, TPJ (yellow) –> processing negative affect, salience, cognitive control, theory of mind
- brain areas selfish:
- -> activity in VMPFC, DMPFC (blue) –> reward processing, mentalising
- -> players have competing motivations to maximise material payoffs + minimise aversive guilt

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12
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- emotions - anger

A

1) appraisal that progress toward a goal is blocked, social/moral norm has been transgressed
2) punishment, revenge action tendencies
- frustration anger model: act on your frustration (due to worse/actual payoff than expected outcome)
- threat of punishment can ensure a cooperative outcome
- brain areas magnitude of deviation from expectation (to actual offer)
- -> activity in dACC, anterior insula –> error-monitoring and emotion

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13
Q

moralistic punishment

A

= punish non-cooperators

- fosters group cooperation: punishment of non-cooperators motivates them to cooperate

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14
Q

antisocial punishment

A

= punish high cooperators
- do-gooder derogation = people who help others get criticised, ridiculed for their efforts
- prevents escalation of generosity
x destabilises group cooperation, reduces the beneficial effects of moralistic punishment
x risky tactic as it can make oneself look bad if done poorly

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15
Q

antisocial punishment

- theories

A
  1. normative theory = punish deviations of group norms (no matter which direction)
  2. biological markets theory (Barclay) = we choose partners for cooperative interactions so we try to outbid each other in order to be chosen (= competitive helping)
    - anti-social punishment function as way to prevent one’s competitors from gaining relative reputation, make oneself look worse by comparison
    - -> do good but not too good
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16
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- education/economy students

A
  • economy students: keep more money for themselves; less adherence to norms of fairness; in open-ended questions greater self-focus; more positive attitude towards greed
  • Homo Economicus not concerned with others’ welfare
  • self-interest: aims to increase personal well-being; motivation to drive most economic behaviour
  • greed: extreme self-interest
17
Q

factors influencing cooperation

- wealth/higher social class

A
  • higher social class: more unethical decision-making; more likely to break law while driving; take valued goods from others; lie in negotiations; cheat to increase chances of winning a prize; endorse unethical behaviour at work
  • -> more favourable attitude towards greed; feeling of entitlement and inattention to consequences of behaviour for other’s; goal-focused; more likely from economic background
18
Q

cultural differences

A
  • payoff to cooperation: cooperation stronger in societies where there is more cooperation with non-immediate kin
  • market integration: more cooperation in societies where there is greater trading via markets
  • collectivistic cultures: more inclined to see others as out-group members –> more anti-social punishment
19
Q

game theory

A

= analysis of interaction between rational agents that share common knowledge of rules

  • common knowledge of rationality: assume rationality of other players; everybody is rational and everybody knows that everyone is rational
  • -> people rarely act 100% rational
    1) players - who is part of the game?
    2) rules - what are the rules of the game?
    3) payoffs/outcomes - what are the possible outcomes?
20
Q

behavioural game theory

A

= study of how people actually behave in interactive situations

21
Q

nash equilibrium

A

= situationist where no one has a unilateral (= only one deviating) incentive to change strategy

22
Q

games

A

= interactions between 2 or more agents, each of whom have 2 or more strategies available (which are associated with payoffs that depend on the action of the other person)

23
Q

games

- prisoner’s dilemma

A
  • nash equilibrium: joint defection
  • only one equilibrium point (in other cases there can be more): mutual defection seen as dominant strategy
  • -> not ideal but best they can get if they are both rational actors pursuing their self-interest
  • reality: people cooperate more often than game theory predicts
24
Q

games

- public goods game

A
  • best collectively rational strategy/group interests: contribute
  • best individual strategy/own interests: not contribute
25
Q

games

- ultimatum game

A
  • two anonymous players are allotted a sum of money in a one-shot interaction
  • -> player 1: decides how to divide the money
  • -> player 2: accepts/rejects offers before hearing the actual offer
  • doesn’t accept = no one gets anything
26
Q

games

- dictator game

A
  • two anonymous players are allotted a sum of money in a one-shot interaction
  • -> player 1: decides how to divide the money
  • -> player 2: must accept; receives allocation & game ends
  • measure of intrinsic motivation for equal offers
27
Q

games

- third-party punishment game

A
  • two anonymous players are allotted a sum of money in a one-shot interaction
  • -> player 1: decides how to divide the money
  • -> player 2: no choice
  • -> player 3 (gets additional 50% of stake): before hearing actual offer, decides which offers to punish with what amount of money
  • if punished: player 1 loses triple amount payed by player 3
28
Q

games

- strategies

A
  • tit-for-tat: defection punished, cooperation rewarded
  • downing strategy: begin by defecting
  • nice vs. nasty
29
Q

games

- pay offs

A
  • reward
  • punishment
  • temptation
  • sucker
30
Q

social neuroeconomics

A 
economics (game theory)
\+
psychology (theory of mind)
\+
neuroscience (neural correlates)
31
Q

brain parts

- cognitive control

A
  • vmPFC: decision making involving social preferences; integration of cost & benefits -> more active when unfair offers accepted
  • anterior insula: activity associated with degree of emotional anger about unfair offers; stronger activity = more likely to reject offer
  • DLPFC: controls emotional impulse to reject unfair offers; when out of order more unfair offers accepted
  • ACC: conflict monitoring; activity consistent with trade-off between self-interest & prosocial motives
32
Q

brain parts

- reward-related areas

A
  • striatum: activated by anticipated reward, reinforcement learning & social reward; more costly donations = more activation
  • nucleus accumbens: activated when there is reward value in observing the punishment of unfair partners
  • VTA: activated when receiving money & non-costly donations -> shows that giving has its own reward value
  • oxytocin: reduces fear of betrayal by dampening amygdala activation -> more trusting

Complex Cognition (9 decks)

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