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Complex Cognition > TASK 3 - PROBLEM SOLVING > Flashcards

TASK 3 - PROBLEM SOLVING Flashcards

1
Q

problem solving

A
  • problem exists when someone lacks relevant knowledge to produce immediate solution
  • purposeful, goal-directed
  • involves controlled, rather than automatic processes
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2
Q

types of problems

A
  1. well-defined problems = all aspects of the problem are clearly specified (= initial state, goal, methods available) (e.g. maze or chess)
    - used in research: there’s an optimal strategy and errors/deficiencies can easily be identified
  2. ill-defined problems = definition of problem is underspecified, initial state, goal state & methods unclear (e.g. keys locked in car)
    - most everyday problems
  3. knowledge-rich problems = can only be solved with prior knowledge
  4. knowledge-lean problems = can be solved without prior knowledge, necessary info is provided by problem statement
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3
Q

cynefin framework (LECTURE)

A

A. predictable problems:
- simple problems: easy to find solution; recipe for cooking
- complicated problems: need expertise to solve
B. unpredictable problems:
- complex problems: experimenting to find solution
- chaotic problems: no idea how to solve problems; if not convert into complex problem ‘worst case’
–> problems can develop back and forth (one step at a time)

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4
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- past experience

A
  • generally increases ability to solve problems
    BUT
  • functional fixedness = inability to detach from usual function of an object; assume that any given object has a limited number of uses (e.g. candle + box of nails)
  • mental set/einstellung = using strategy previously useful, but in current situation not helpful; use a familiar strategy even where there is a simpler/more effective alternative
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5
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- incubation

A
  • problem is solved more easily when it is put aside for some time (Wallas)
  • stronger effect for creative problems with multiple solutions & when long preparation time prior to
    hypotheses:
  • Wallas: subconscious keeps processing
  • Simon: forget control information which makes it easier to adopt a new approach
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6
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- expertise

A
  1. chunking theory: memory chunks contain more information & more chunks are stored
  2. template theory: chunks that are used frequently develop into more complex data structures –> few large templates (= more general) rather than large number of chunks
    - template = core (= similar to fixed info stored in chunks) + slots (=contain variable info) thus are more flexible
  3. routine expertise = using acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems efficiently (focus of template theory)
  4. adaptive expertise = using acquired knowledge to develop strategies for dealing with novel problems
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7
Q
  1. BEHAVIOURISM
A
  • Thorndike
  • trial-and-error learning
    x reproductive thinking
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8
Q
  1. GESTALT

a. main hypothesis

A
  • problem solving requires productive thinking
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9
Q

2.

b. prior history

A
  • Wolfgang Köhler
    insight
    = experience of suddenly realising how to solve a problem “ahaaaa experience”; productive thinking
  • replacing one way of thinking about a problem with a new & more efficient way (cognitive conflict)
  • non-insight problems: “warmth” (closeness to solution) gradually rises
  • insight problems: warmth stays rather low until it suddenly rises before solution
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10
Q

2.

c. concepts

A 
(1) reproductive vs. productive
reproductive thinking
= re-use knowledge
productive thinking
= understand underlying structure, restructuring of problem situation to find solution; gain new knowledge
(2) barriers to problem solving
- mental set
- functional fixedness
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11
Q

2.

d. strengths/weaknesses

A 
√ interesting, novel views
√ some ideas still used
x no mechanisms
x only artificial problems
x disregard intuitive problem solving
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12
Q
  1. PROBLEM SPACE HYPOTHESIS

a. main hypothesis

A
  • problem situation (initial, goal, intermediate states, mental operations) is represented in problem space
  • humans have limited processing capacity (use heuristics)
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13
Q

3.

b. prior history

A
  • Newell & Simon
  • information processing approach = human mind works like a computer
  • general problem solver: computer program to solve problems
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14
Q

3.

c. concepts

A

heuristics

(1) hill climbing: do everything that gets you closer to solution; step-by-step
- works for ill-defined:
(2) means-end-analysis: more elaborate; creating a sub-goal to reduce the difference between the current & goal state
- works for well-defined: need to know structure to set subgoal first
(3) progress monitoring: 1. monitor/check progress 2. if process too slow: change of strategy

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15
Q

3.

d. strengths/weaknesses

A

√ detailed explanations
√ many applications
x cannot explain insight problem-solving
x everyday problems are not well-defined

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16
Q
  1. REPRESENTATIONAL CHANGE THEORY
A
  • combination of Gestalt and problem space; emphasising insight
    model:
    1. current problem representation serves as a memory probe to retrieve related knowledge from LTM (= operators/ possible actions)
    2. retrieval process is based on spreading activation among concepts in LTM
    3. impasse: problem representation does not permit retrieval of the necessary/possible actions
    4. impasse is broken when problem representation is changed (= INSIGHT!)
  • elaboration/ additional info
  • constraint relaxation: inhibitions on what is regarded as permissible are removed
  • re-encoding: some aspect of the problem is reinterpreted
    5. new mental representation acts as new memory probe
17
Q

4.

- limitations

A

x difficult to predict when/how the representation of a problem will change
x single-factor theory: constraint relaxation as single solution to insight problems
x de-emphasised individual differences

18
Q

analogical problem-solving

A

= solving problems by using analogies (= comparison between two objects/between current and previous problem that emphasises similarities between them)
- important in everyday life: relating novel situations to previous situations

19
Q

types of similarities (analogical problem-solving)

A

similarities between problems: we must detect similarities to solve our problem

  1. superficial similarity: solution-irrelevant details are common to the two problems
  2. structural similarity: causal relations among some of the main components are shared by both problems
  3. procedural similarity: procedures for turning the solutions principle into concrete operations are common to both problems
20
Q

transfer (analogical problem-solving)

A

= effects of previous learning and problem solving on current problem
positive vs negative transfers
- positive transfer = past experience helps
–> far transfer: positive transfer to dissimilar context
–> near transfer: positive transfer to similar context
- negative transfer = past experience disrupts ability to solve current problem

21
Q

other heuristics/techniques

A
  • generate and test
  • backward: analyse goal to determine last step needed to achieve it
  • backtracking: keeping track of when/which assumptions were made
  • introspection: observing one’s own thoughts
22
Q

different kinds of thinking

A
  • focused vs. unfocused
  • productive vs. reproductive
  • divergent vs. convergent
  • system I (fast) vs. system II (slow)
23
Q

brain parts

- dorsolateral PFC

A
  • right DLPFC: associated with working memory system and attention
  • highly active during strategy planning
  • response inhibition (familiar responses)
24
Q

brain parts

- adaptive control of thought

A

= about the activation of all brain areas involved

  • posterior parietal/occipital cortex: visual, spatial processing; imaginal module
  • anterior cingulate cortex: monitors conflict and errors; goal module
  • (inferior ventrolateral) prefrontal cortex: planning, cognitive control; retrieval module
  • basal ganglia/caudate nucleus: decision making; procedural module
  • anterior superior temporal gyrus (right hemisphere): INSIGHT
25
Q

creativity

A

= ability to produce work that is novel + useful; original + effective/context appropriate
= interaction between characteristics (A) and context/environment (B)
- revolutionary creativity: west; questioning every assumption, think for yourself/individual
- evolutionary creativity: east; more systematic, harmony
–> social norm account: creativity shaped by social norms, pressure to fit in in collectivistic societies
- construal level theory: the further an object is away the more abstract it will be perceived

26
Q

what do you need to be creative?

A

(1) skills: ability to think creatively
(2) dispositions/attitudes: believe it to be important to be creative
(3) translation of creative ideas into actions and evaluate actions
(4) overcome misunderstandings (brainstorming, not always helpful)

27
Q

sternberg’s investment theory

A
  • creativity is a decision
  • creative thinkers do not care about what crowd is thinking
  • take courage, face external and internal criticism
28
Q

(A) creative characteristics

A

√ willingness to grow, take risks, defer judgment
√ mental flexibility
√ self-efficiency, social skills, openness
√ motivation, inspiration
√ psychological distane, incubation
x time pressure, short-term orientation
x uncertainty avoidance, fear of unknown, old habits
big ego

29
Q

(B) creativity environment

A
  1. task environment: what problem you’re working on
    √ enough time, resources
    √ autonomy, no risk for risk taking
  2. social environment: support of others
    √ encourage exchange, team work, prosocial environment
    √ recognition, support of top management
  3. physical environment: what spaces support creativity
    √ certain colours (green, blue) –> plants, windows
    √ balance between privacy + interaction
30
Q

creative process

A
  1. recognising problem
  2. idea generation
  3. idea selection
  4. solution validation
    GESTALT theory
  5. preparation
  6. incubation
  7. illuination
  8. verification
31
Q

techniques to get rid of past experience (CREATIVITY, LECTURE)

A
  • randomness
  • analogies
  • distance, incubation
  • counterfactuals: forcing people to take different perspective
  • change perspective
  • object-focused brainstorming
  • negative brainstorming: turn problem around
  • SCAMPER
32
Q

design thinking

A

= process to achieve breakthrough innovation

  • using analytical data and teams with diverse backgrounds
  • non-linear thinking
33
Q

steps of design thinking

A
  1. empathise: user focus
  2. define/problem framing + ideate/idea generation
  3. prototype/visualise + test: refine concepts
34
Q

design thinking

- problems + solutions

A
    • top-down processing: draw conclusions based on experience; leads to encoding failures (= disregarding of important details)
      √ bottom up processing through multiple observers/ observations
      - inattentional blindness:
      failure to see things in plain sight because attention is directed elsewhere (e.g. invisible gorilla)
      √ look for unexpected to find surprises
      - confirmation bias: dismiss data that contradicts prior beliefs
      √ make a effort to capture evidence challenging pre-existing beliefs
    • fixation: inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective; mental set
      √ reframing
      √ role-switching
      √ brainstorming constraints
    • fundamental attribution error: own failure due to external circumstances
      √ record feedback
      - sunk cost trap: too heavy emotional investment in initial idea
      √ parallel rather than serial prototyping

Complex Cognition (9 decks)

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