TASK 3 - PROBLEM SOLVING Flashcards

1
Q

problem solving

A
  • problem exists when someone lacks relevant knowledge to produce immediate solution
  • purposeful, goal-directed
  • involves controlled, rather than automatic processes
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2
Q

types of problems

A
  1. well-defined problems = all aspects of the problem are clearly specified (= initial state, goal, methods available) (e.g. maze or chess)
    - used in research: there’s an optimal strategy and errors/deficiencies can easily be identified
  2. ill-defined problems = definition of problem is underspecified, initial state, goal state & methods unclear (e.g. keys locked in car)
    - most everyday problems
  3. knowledge-rich problems = can only be solved with prior knowledge
  4. knowledge-lean problems = can be solved without prior knowledge, necessary info is provided by problem statement
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3
Q

cynefin framework (LECTURE)

A

A. predictable problems:
- simple problems: easy to find solution; recipe for cooking
- complicated problems: need expertise to solve
B. unpredictable problems:
- complex problems: experimenting to find solution
- chaotic problems: no idea how to solve problems; if not convert into complex problem ‘worst case’
–> problems can develop back and forth (one step at a time)

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4
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- past experience

A
  • generally increases ability to solve problems
    BUT
  • functional fixedness = inability to detach from usual function of an object; assume that any given object has a limited number of uses (e.g. candle + box of nails)
  • mental set/einstellung = using strategy previously useful, but in current situation not helpful; use a familiar strategy even where there is a simpler/more effective alternative
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5
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- incubation

A
  • problem is solved more easily when it is put aside for some time (Wallas)
  • stronger effect for creative problems with multiple solutions & when long preparation time prior to
    hypotheses:
  • Wallas: subconscious keeps processing
  • Simon: forget control information which makes it easier to adopt a new approach
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6
Q

factors influencing problem solving

- expertise

A
  1. chunking theory: memory chunks contain more information & more chunks are stored
  2. template theory: chunks that are used frequently develop into more complex data structures –> few large templates (= more general) rather than large number of chunks
    - template = core (= similar to fixed info stored in chunks) + slots (=contain variable info) thus are more flexible
  3. routine expertise = using acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems efficiently (focus of template theory)
  4. adaptive expertise = using acquired knowledge to develop strategies for dealing with novel problems
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7
Q
  1. BEHAVIOURISM
A
  • Thorndike
  • trial-and-error learning
    x reproductive thinking
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8
Q
  1. GESTALT

a. main hypothesis

A
  • problem solving requires productive thinking
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9
Q

2.

b. prior history

A
  • Wolfgang Köhler
    insight
    = experience of suddenly realising how to solve a problem “ahaaaa experience”; productive thinking
  • replacing one way of thinking about a problem with a new & more efficient way (cognitive conflict)
  • non-insight problems: “warmth” (closeness to solution) gradually rises
  • insight problems: warmth stays rather low until it suddenly rises before solution
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10
Q

2.

c. concepts

A
(1) reproductive vs. productive
reproductive thinking
= re-use knowledge
productive thinking
= understand underlying structure, restructuring of problem situation to find solution; gain new knowledge
(2) barriers to problem solving
- mental set
- functional fixedness
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11
Q

2.

d. strengths/weaknesses

A
√ interesting, novel views
√ some ideas still used
x no mechanisms
x only artificial problems
x disregard intuitive problem solving
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12
Q
  1. PROBLEM SPACE HYPOTHESIS

a. main hypothesis

A
  • problem situation (initial, goal, intermediate states, mental operations) is represented in problem space
  • humans have limited processing capacity (use heuristics)
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13
Q

3.

b. prior history

A
  • Newell & Simon
  • information processing approach = human mind works like a computer
  • general problem solver: computer program to solve problems
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14
Q

3.

c. concepts

A

heuristics

(1) hill climbing: do everything that gets you closer to solution; step-by-step
- works for ill-defined:
(2) means-end-analysis: more elaborate; creating a sub-goal to reduce the difference between the current & goal state
- works for well-defined: need to know structure to set subgoal first
(3) progress monitoring: 1. monitor/check progress 2. if process too slow: change of strategy

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15
Q

3.

d. strengths/weaknesses

A

√ detailed explanations
√ many applications
x cannot explain insight problem-solving
x everyday problems are not well-defined

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16
Q
  1. REPRESENTATIONAL CHANGE THEORY
A
  • combination of Gestalt and problem space; emphasising insight
    model:
    1. current problem representation serves as a memory probe to retrieve related knowledge from LTM (= operators/ possible actions)
    2. retrieval process is based on spreading activation among concepts in LTM
    3. impasse: problem representation does not permit retrieval of the necessary/possible actions
    4. impasse is broken when problem representation is changed (= INSIGHT!)
  • elaboration/ additional info
  • constraint relaxation: inhibitions on what is regarded as permissible are removed
  • re-encoding: some aspect of the problem is reinterpreted
    5. new mental representation acts as new memory probe
17
Q

4.

- limitations

A

x difficult to predict when/how the representation of a problem will change
x single-factor theory: constraint relaxation as single solution to insight problems
x de-emphasised individual differences

18
Q

analogical problem-solving

A

= solving problems by using analogies (= comparison between two objects/between current and previous problem that emphasises similarities between them)
- important in everyday life: relating novel situations to previous situations

19
Q

types of similarities (analogical problem-solving)

A

similarities between problems: we must detect similarities to solve our problem

  1. superficial similarity: solution-irrelevant details are common to the two problems
  2. structural similarity: causal relations among some of the main components are shared by both problems
  3. procedural similarity: procedures for turning the solutions principle into concrete operations are common to both problems
20
Q

transfer (analogical problem-solving)

A

= effects of previous learning and problem solving on current problem
positive vs negative transfers
- positive transfer = past experience helps
–> far transfer: positive transfer to dissimilar context
–> near transfer: positive transfer to similar context
- negative transfer = past experience disrupts ability to solve current problem

21
Q

other heuristics/techniques

A
  • generate and test
  • backward: analyse goal to determine last step needed to achieve it
  • backtracking: keeping track of when/which assumptions were made
  • introspection: observing one’s own thoughts
22
Q

different kinds of thinking

A
  • focused vs. unfocused
  • productive vs. reproductive
  • divergent vs. convergent
  • system I (fast) vs. system II (slow)
23
Q

brain parts

- dorsolateral PFC

A
  • right DLPFC: associated with working memory system and attention
  • highly active during strategy planning
  • response inhibition (familiar responses)
24
Q

brain parts

- adaptive control of thought

A

= about the activation of all brain areas involved

  • posterior parietal/occipital cortex: visual, spatial processing; imaginal module
  • anterior cingulate cortex: monitors conflict and errors; goal module
  • (inferior ventrolateral) prefrontal cortex: planning, cognitive control; retrieval module
  • basal ganglia/caudate nucleus: decision making; procedural module
  • anterior superior temporal gyrus (right hemisphere): INSIGHT
25
creativity
= ability to produce work that is novel + useful; original + effective/context appropriate = interaction between characteristics (A) and context/environment (B) - revolutionary creativity: west; questioning every assumption, think for yourself/individual - evolutionary creativity: east; more systematic, harmony --> social norm account: creativity shaped by social norms, pressure to fit in in collectivistic societies - construal level theory: the further an object is away the more abstract it will be perceived
26
what do you need to be creative?
(1) skills: ability to think creatively (2) dispositions/attitudes: believe it to be important to be creative (3) translation of creative ideas into actions and evaluate actions (4) overcome misunderstandings (brainstorming, not always helpful)
27
sternberg's investment theory
- creativity is a decision - creative thinkers do not care about what crowd is thinking - take courage, face external and internal criticism
28
(A) creative characteristics
√ willingness to grow, take risks, defer judgment √ mental flexibility √ self-efficiency, social skills, openness √ motivation, inspiration √ psychological distane, incubation x time pressure, short-term orientation x uncertainty avoidance, fear of unknown, old habits big ego
29
(B) creativity environment
1. task environment: what problem you're working on √ enough time, resources √ autonomy, no risk for risk taking 2. social environment: support of others √ encourage exchange, team work, prosocial environment √ recognition, support of top management 3. physical environment: what spaces support creativity √ certain colours (green, blue) --> plants, windows √ balance between privacy + interaction
30
creative process
1. recognising problem 2. idea generation 3. idea selection 4. solution validation GESTALT theory 1. preparation 2. incubation 3. illuination 4. verification
31
techniques to get rid of past experience (CREATIVITY, LECTURE)
- randomness - analogies - distance, incubation - counterfactuals: forcing people to take different perspective - change perspective - object-focused brainstorming - negative brainstorming: turn problem around - SCAMPER
32
design thinking
= process to achieve breakthrough innovation - using analytical data and teams with diverse backgrounds - non-linear thinking
33
steps of design thinking
1. empathise: user focus 2. define/problem framing + ideate/idea generation 3. prototype/visualise + test: refine concepts
34
design thinking | - problems + solutions
1. - top-down processing: draw conclusions based on experience; leads to encoding failures (= disregarding of important details) √ bottom up processing through multiple observers/ observations - inattentional blindness: failure to see things in plain sight because attention is directed elsewhere (e.g. invisible gorilla) √ look for unexpected to find surprises - confirmation bias: dismiss data that contradicts prior beliefs √ make a effort to capture evidence challenging pre-existing beliefs 2. - fixation: inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective; mental set √ reframing √ role-switching √ brainstorming constraints 3. - fundamental attribution error: own failure due to external circumstances √ record feedback - sunk cost trap: too heavy emotional investment in initial idea √ parallel rather than serial prototyping