Task 6 Instrumental conditioning Flashcards

1
Q

Operant conditioning

A

The process whereby organisms learn to make responses in order to obtain or avoid certain outcomes
o Discriminative Stimulus SD  Response R  Outcome O

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2
Q

Discriminative stimulus (SD)

A

A stimulus that signals whether a particular response will lead to a particular outcome. Helps to discriminate the conditions under which Response (R) will lead to Outcome (O)

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3
Q

Habit slip

A

the discriminative stimulus of the maze environment SD was so strongly associated with the maze-running response r that unexpected food encountered along the way couldn’t disrupt the SD  R association

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4
Q

Protestant ethic effect

A

animals/humans rather work for food than get free food

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5
Q

Free-operant paradigm

A

An operant conditioning paradigm in which the animal can operate freely, responding to obtain reinforcement or avoid punishment when it chooses

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6
Q

Discrete trails paradigm

A

An operant conditioning paradigm in which the experimenter defines that beginning and end points

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7
Q

Skinners box

A

A conditioning experiment where rats are put in a box in which reinforcement or punishment is delivered automatically whenever an animal makes a particular response (such as pressing a lever)

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8
Q

Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviours

A

A method to decrease frequency of unwanted behaviours by instead reinforcing preferred alternate behaviours

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9
Q

Reinforcement schedule

A

A schedule determining how often reinforcement is delivered in an operant conditioning paradigm

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10
Q

Reinforcer

A

A consequence of behaviour that leads to increased likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in future

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11
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

A stimulus such as food, water, sex or sleep that has innate biological value to the organism and can function as a reinforcer
o Are not always reinforcing e.g. when the animal drunk enough water further water supply will not be reinforcing anymore
o Not all equal, e.g. they will work harder for food they like

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12
Q

Drive reduction theory

A

The theory by Hull that organisms have innate drives to obtain primary reinforcers and that learning is driven by biological need to reduce those drives

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13
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A
A stimulus (such as tokens or money) that has no intrinsic biological value but has been paired with primary reinforcers or that provided access to primary reinforcers 
o	Can become reinforced too, or only a cue that they are in the right track to obtain primary reinforcement
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14
Q

Token environment

A

An environment (such as prison or schoolroom) in which tokens function the same way as money does in the outside world

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15
Q

Negative contrast

A

Situation in which an organism will respond less strongly to a less-preferred reinforcer than it would have if the less preferred reinforcer had been provided all along

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16
Q

Punisher

A

A consequence of a behaviour that leads to a decreased likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in the future
o Produces variety of new outcomes and is not as effective as reinforcement for desired behaviour
o Can encourage cheating
o Reinforcement can counteract punishment (e.g. when animals have to press a lever to get food, but getting an electro shock when they do so they will continue pressing the lever)
o Intensity matters, stronger punishment is more effective on behaviour and when you start with weaker punishment later stronger punishment will be less effective

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17
Q

Timing

A

reinforcement should occur shortly after the behaviour otherwise it could be associated falsely with another behaviour that occurred in the mean time
o Self-control: An organism’s willingness to forget a small immediate reinforcement in favour of a large future reinforcement.

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18
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

A type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a reinforcer to be added to the environment; over time, the response becomes more frequent (SD (potty present) R (emptying bladder) O (praise))

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19
Q

Positive punishment

A

A type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a punisher to be “added” to the environment; over time, the response becomes less frequent. (SD (potty absent) R (emptying bladder) O (disapproval))

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20
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

A type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a punisher to be taken away, or subtracted from the environment; over time, the response becomes more frequent (SD (headache) R (take aspirin) O (no more headache))
o Escape or avoidance training

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21
Q

Negative punishment

A

A type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a reinforcer to be taken away, or “subtracted from,” the environment; over time, the response becomes less frequent. (SD (recess) R (aggressive behaviour) O (loss of playtime))

22
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

A reinforcement schedule in which every instance of the response is followed by the consequence

23
Q

Partial reinforcement schedule

A

A reinforcement schedule in which only some responses are reinforced

24
Q

Fixed ratio schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses are required before a reinforcer is delivered; for example, FR 5 means that reinforcement arrives after every fifth response
 Post-reinforcement pause: A pause in fixed ratio schedules after repeating a behaviour and getting the wanted result. The length of the pause is related to the number of responses that are needed

25
Q

Fixed interval (FI) schedules

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced; thus, FI 1-m means that reinforcement arrives for the first response made after a one-minute interval since the last reinforcement.
 They can only estimate the time span so behaviour increases around the time where reinforcement will occur

26
Q

Variable-ratio (VR) schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule in which a certain number of responses, on average, are required before a reinforcer is delivered; thus, VR 5 means that, on average, every fifth response is reinforced.
 Greatly reduces the post-reinforcement pause

27
Q

Variable-interval (IV) schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time, on average, is reinforced; thus, VI 1-m means that the first response after one minute, on average, is reinforced
 Produce higher rates of responding than FI

28
Q

Concurrent reinforcement schdeul

A

A reinforcement schedule in which the organism can make any of several possible responses, each of which may lead to a different outcome reinforced according to a different reinforcement schedule.

29
Q

Matching law of choice behaviour

A

an organism’s response patterns will closely mimic the relative rates of reinforcement for each possible response

30
Q

Premack principle

A

The theory that the opportunity to perform a highly frequent behaviour can reinforce a less frequent behaviour; later refined as the response deprivation theory (rat wheel and water. If they only can run if they drink water they will drink more water than normally)

31
Q

Response deprivation hypothesis

A

A refinement of the Premack principle stating that the opportunity to perform any behaviour can be reinforcing if access to that behaviour is restricted.

32
Q

Dorsal striatum

A

important for SD  R learning (tend to be automatic or habitual)
o Receives highly processed stimulus information from sensory cortical areas and projects to the motor cortex, which produces behavioural responses
o Lesions lead to impaired learning of discriminative stimuli

33
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex

A

: important for learning about expected outcomes, but also whether an outcome is reinforcing or not
o Appears to contribute to goal-directed behaviour by representing predicted outcomes
o Receives sensory information as well as visceral sensations (hunger, thirst etc.) and projects to the striatum where they can help determine which motor responses are executed
o Appear to code the actual identity of the expected outcome
o Respond with a strength proportional to the perceived value of each choice

34
Q

Dopamine

A

could strengthen SD → R association due to the fact that it enhances synaptic plasticity

35
Q

Insular cortex (punishment)

A

is important for our conscious awareness of our own bodies and emotional states
 Dorsal posterior insula: plays a role in perception of physical pain, as well as other negative emotional states such as hunger, anger, and disgust

36
Q

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

A

has been implicated in the motivational value of pain—the degree to which it can drive changes in behaviour

37
Q

Ventral tegmental area

A

Dopamine producing area. Part of the reinforcement centre. Projects to different party of the brain

38
Q

Hedonic value

A

The subjective goodness or value of a reinforcer (liking)

o Endogenous opioid: may help signal hedonic value of reinforcers in the brain

39
Q

Motivational value

A

The degree to which an organism is willing to work to obtain access to that stimulus (wanting)
o VTA produces dopamine and projects it to SNc which is a part of basal ganglia
o Incentive salience hypothesis: The hypothesis that dopamine helps provide organisms with the motivation to work for reinforcement (wanting)
 Animals with no dopamine don’t want to work for food

40
Q

Anhedonia hypothesis

A

Dopamine gives the food its goodness. And that’s what leads you to work for it (liking)
o Problem with parkinson because patients still like things

41
Q

Reward prediction hypothesis

A

dopamine is involved in predicting future outcomes, neurons fire when outcome is expected

42
Q

Shaping

A

An operant conditioning technique in which successive approximations to a desired response are reinforced. Introducing step by step associations and changing rules to guide the animal to the right response
o Can be used for autistic children to learn speaking, limb movement for impaired people

43
Q

Chaining

A

An operant conditioning technique in which organisms are gradually trained to execute complicated sequences of discrete responses (sometimes it is more useful to introduce the steps in reverse order  backward chaining

44
Q

Pathological addiction

A

A strong habit that is maintained despite harmful consequences
o Fail to allocating recourses appropriately
o High produces positive reinforcement and withdraw negative reinforcement
o After a time only wanting stays but liking dismisses

45
Q

Insula and addiction

A

• When insula is damaged addiction can diminish

46
Q

Behavioural addiction

A

Addiction to a behaviour that produces reinforcement, as well as craving and withdraw symptoms when the behaviour is prevented
o Show greater level of dopamine in the dorsal striatum

47
Q

Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour

A

Treating yourself for not using the drug

48
Q

Delayed reinforcement

A

smoking one hour after you decided that you want to smoke

49
Q

Extinction

A

when the response doesn’t elicit an outcome

50
Q

Difference between classical and operant

A

Whenever you have to decide whether a paradigm is operant or classical, focus on the outcome. if the outcome occurs regardless of responding, then the paradigm is classical; if it is contingent on a response, then the paradigm is operant.

51
Q

Behavioural economics

A

The study of how organisms allocate their time and resources among possible options

52
Q

Bliss point

A

In behavioural economics, the allocation of resources that maximise subjective value or satisfaction