Task 3 - Complex arguments Flashcards
Logic
the organised body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments
aim: to develop a system of methods and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own –> to develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad ones
Argument
a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (conclusions)
Statement
a sentence that is either true or false (typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence)
Truth values (of a statement)
- truth
- falsity
Premises
the statements that set forth the reasons or evidence
Conclusion
the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply
Conclusion indicators (examples)
- Therefore
- Wherefore
- Thus
- Consequently
- We may infer
- Accordingly
Premise indicator (examples)
- Since
- As indicated by
- Because
- For
Inference
the reasoning process expressed by an argument and is used interchangeably with “argument”
- treated the same as an argument
- inductive reasoning - because “probably”
Proposition
the meaning or information content of a statement
- treated the same as a statement
Syllogistic logic
a kind of logic in which the fundamental elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are arranged in the argument
Modal logic
a kind of logic that involves concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt
Simple non-inferential passages
unproblematic passages that lack a claim that anything is being proved
Warning
form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental situation
Piece of advice
form of expression that makes a recommendation about some future decision or course of conduct
A statement of belief or opinion
expression about what someone happens to believe or think about something
Loosely associated statements
may be about the same general subject, but they lack a claim that one of them is proved by others
Report
a group of statements that convey information about some topic or event
Expository passage
is a kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence
illustration
an expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what something means or how it is done
Multilayered arguments
An argument in which reasons or objections have drawn out new reasons or objections
Rebuttal
When a reason is followed by an objection within an argument
2 kinds of rebuttals:
1. counterargument to a premise: shows that the reason’s contention is false – it attacks the content of the premise
2. counterargument to a conclusion: even though the contention proposed in the reason is correct, this contention does not provide enough proof to support the conclusion – it attacks the argument (the link between the claim and the reason)
Refutation
2 types
if a counterargument is itself rejected within an argument
- as long as the second objection is correct, the refutation means that the first objection in the argument can be ignored
- a refutation of a premise
- a refutation of a conclusion
attention should be paid to two macrostructural rules
- the pyramid rule
2. the MECE rule
the pyramid rule
The pyramid rule has two aspects.
- 1st. the higher up the argument is placed in the argument tree, the more general and abstract it should be.
- 2nd. aspect is that when two arguments are placed on the same level, they should have the same level of abstraction
MECE rule
Mutually Exclusive, Collectively Exhaustive
- there must be no overlap or gaps in any group of reasons or objections
- Mutually Exclusive means that within each group, the reasons or objections should be different from one another
- Collectively Exhaustive, means that all conceivable arguments that are relevant to the claim are brought to bear, leaving no gaps in the argument tree
