Task 1

Question 1

drive theory =
drive =
need =

Answer 1

= there are things all organisms/humans required for well-being
= activity as result of a disequelibrium (deficeicy in food)
= lack of something essential

Question 2

Maslows theory of motivation –> hierarchy of needs

Answer 2

1. biological physiological
2. security/ stability
3. belongingness/ love ans relationships
4. self-esteem –> for self and from others
5. self-actualisation –> self realisation and self determination (= becaoming who you are truly)

• theory: succesive and strongly related to each other
• –> stages are attepted/conserned with step by step
• –> positive correlation between needs which are adjacent

Question 3

Taormina study (about Maslow) methods

• Meaningful empirical testing of a theory entails:
  1. Defining all terms/concepts
  2. Examining the construct validity
  3. Examining the predictive validity

Answer 3

• New measurements for …
  1. satisfaction of 5 needs (–> Likert scale)

2. expected correlations
   
   • stages with each other
   • -> positive correlations (adjacent + successive)
   • with 4 social/personality measures
   • -> family emotional support (+), traditional values(+), anxiety/ worry (-), life satisfaction (+) –> WARUM?
3. expect level of satisfaction of each need to statistically predict the satisfaction level of the next higher-level need

Question 4

Taormina study (about Maslow) results

• validity and reliability of scales
• correlations (5 needs, 4 other measures, demografics)
• regression or predictive validity

Answer 4

• 286 adults –> valid (factor analysis = construct validity) and reliable –> Cronbachs alpha between 0.8 - .09

> positive correaltion among the 5 scales –> adjacent needs had higher correlations
correlations with 4 other measures as predicted

> correlation between satistfaction of need and demografics:
+ cor. physilogical need & number of siblings, income, health
+ cor. security need & income, health
+ cor. belongingness & health, - age, income
+ cor. self esteem & health, - employment
+ cor. self-actualisation & health, number of siblings, number of children, marital status age

• satisfaction of higher need predictive of the one below it, but varience which is explained by:
  Satisfaction of…
  o Physiological needs best predicted: family emotional support, traditional values, overall health (good sleep, nutrition, exercise), number of brothers (brothers care for siblings) & marital status (regular meals, sex)
  o Security needs was best predicted: satisfaction of physiological needs & family emotional support (protection, safe home)
  o Belongingness needs best predicted: satisfaction of lower needs, family emotional support, traditional values (shared by society), education (highly educated people are more accepted) & income (the less income, the more accepted –> China)
  o Self-esteem needs best predicted: satisfaction of belongingness and negatively predicted: anxiety/ worry
  o Self-actualization needs best predicted: satisfaction physiological and esteem needs, number of children (considered desirable for most people)

Question 5

Taormina study (about Maslow) conclusion

Answer 5

• results support Malows theory
• sample from China > only one population with specific values –> in general: needs = universal

critique:

• it is not necasarry a hierarchy as Malow proposed
  
  • -> assumed that this hierarchical is not true

Question 6

laws of emotion (fridja)

Answer 6

• emotions = lawful phenomena + follow empirical regularities
• emotions largely involuntary –> laws explain underlying mechanisms
• laws explain how emotions:
  (1) develop and change
  (2) persist
  (3) emotional response
  (4) emotional regulated

Question 7

emotions

• action readiness
• basic primary emotions
• secondary emotions

Answer 7

= emotions evoke urge to do something –> adaption! (approach, avoid, shift attention, excitement, loss of interest)

= corresponds with action readiness quite specifically (anger, fear…)

= don’t have the clear correspondence (guilt…)

–> idea corresponds with behavioural system like:
innate behavioral pattern (crying)
universal facial expression
physiological response

Question 8

law of situational meaning 1

Answer 8

Emotions arise in response to the meaning structures of given situations: different emotions arise in response to different meaning structures.

• event/input –> appraisal –> meaning –> emotions
• situational meaning not always explicit/transparent
• law can be overridden by conscious control
• meaning structures can be connected to action readiness

E.g. Corona –> many people died in Italy –> dangerous –> fear/concern –> wearing mask ect.
OR Corona –> not that many people died in Germany –> not dangerous –> doubt/anger about all the rules –> protesting

Question 9

law of concern 1

Answer 9

Emotions arise in response to events that are important to the individual’s goals, motives and concerns.
–> concern and emotion predict each other

• law of concern can join different emotions:
  (losing keys –> sorrow; finding them –> relief)

E.g. Corona –> many old people died in Italy –> dangerous for old people –> I don’t know any old people + I am young –> I don’t care

• Emotions arise from the interaction of situational meaning and concerns!

Question 10

law of reality 1

vividness effect

Answer 10

Emotions are elicited by events appraised as real, and their intensity corresponds to the degree to which this is the case.

• explains:
  vividness effect = single picture of event has more impact that symbolic information or reports about the same event
• stimuli appraised as “real” include:
  o unconditioned affective stimuli (pain…)
  o CS –> phobia (exposure helps –> seeing that threat is unreal)
  o events involving the actual ineffectuality of actions (eg. not receiving a call)
• usually, sensory stimulation needed to elicit emotions - BUT imagination can evoke emotional responses as well

E.g. explains why future events are often disregarded – only when consequences are felt people react (climate crisis)

Question 11

law of change 1

Answer 11

Emotions are elicited not so much by the presence of favorable or unfavorable conditions, but by actual or expected changes in favorable and unfavorable conditions.

E.g having a reliable husband does not produce emotion, but after he left, we feel grief

• the greater the change, the stronger the subsequent emotion
  E.g. joy after victory of one’s team is larger if it was the underdog –> unexpected

Question 12

• -> law of habituation 1

- basis for law of change

Answer 12

Continued pleasures wear off, continued hardships lose their poignancy.

E.g loss of love abates with time and love itself gradually loses its magic

Question 13

• -> law of comparitive feeling 1

- basis for law of habituation

Answer 13

The intensity of emotion depends on the relationship between an event and some frame of reference against which the event is evaluated.

o frame of referenc: expectation; condition of other people –> emotions are relative!

• Limitation: cannot explain situations in which people do not adapt to negative emotions

Question 14

law of hedonistic asymmetry 1
–> Also: law of asymmetrical adaption to pleasure or pain

• evolutionary explaination

Answer 14

Pleasure is always contingent upon change and disappears with continuous satisfaction while pain may persist under persisting adverse conditions.

Evolutionary explaination:

• emotions exist to signal states of the world that we have to responded to/change
• when “no more action needed” –> signals (positive feeling) are switched off

(- results: net quality of life -> likely negative –> therefore: become aware, remember and recollect the positive!!! :) )

Question 15

law of emotional momentum 2

Answer 15

Emotional events retain their power to elicit emotions indefinitely unless counteracted by repetitive exposure that permit extinction or habituation, to the extent that these are possible.

E.g. emotional impact of traumatic event will not just wane, but needs to be overwritten in therapy

Question 16

law of closure 3

Answer 16

Emotions tend to be closed to judgements of relativity of impact and to the requirements of goals other than their own.

• tpposite to law of coparitive feelings
• feelings are absolute!
  Eg. each time you fall in love, it feels like you never felt before

Question 17

Law of care for consequences 4

Answer 17

Every emotional impulse elicits a secondary impulse that tends to modify it in view of its possible consequences.

Explains:
- response modulation and response inhibition = emotion control
-

Question 18

law of lightest load 4

Answer 18

Whenever a situation can be viewed in alternative ways, a tendency exists to view it in a way that minimizes negative emotional load.

-       various mechanisms for load lightening: 
o	denial, avoidant thinking, entertaining of illusionary hopes at a conscious level
o	depersonalization (after threat or shock) or occurrence of the sense of unreality  
o	stick to “worst case hypothesis” instead of enduring uncertainty of an unknown future
o	strategies to lead people view themselves as responsible when in fact they have been victims of arbitrary maltreatment (eg. guilt after sexual abuse)

Question 19

law of greatest gain 4

Answer 19

Whenever a situation can be viewed in alternative ways, a tendency exists to view it in a way that maximizes emotional gain.

• belongs together with law of lightest load
• comparitive with congintive reappraisal –> Task (3)

E.g. grief upon loss tends to be willingfully prolonged because it provides excuses; fear safes the effort to overcome risks; distress might be expressed as a call for help (better?)

Question 20

history of concept of emotion and feeling

• Behaviourists
• Ledoux
• Feldman Barret
• Freud
• Contemporary

Answer 20

• Behaviorists: subjective feelings are irrelevant for emotions
• LeDoux: subjective feelings are the essence of emotions
  o animals might react emotionally, but they lack any conscious feeling
• Feldman-Barret: emotions require complex cognitive appraisal, language-based reasoning and sociocultural constructs only humans possess –> special brain systems unique to humans
• Freud: emotions are always consciously felt
• Contemporary neuroscientists: emotions can occur unconsciously as implicit processes + subjective feelings
  > emotions are shared with animals & emotional brain systems arose early in evolution (long before language etc.)

Question 21

Are emotions exclusively conscious? –> three levels of consideration

1. 2.
   3.

Answer 21

1. A prior definition (but not possible to define facts in advance)
2. Available evidence from unconscious emotions (falsification)
   - -> Self-reports and introspection = not reliable sources for emotions (distorted, biased)
   - -> BUT behavior/ physiology is detectable! –> behavioural studies etc. (especially good for uncoscious emotions)
3. Applications from conclusions based on emotional studies in animals
   o laws of emotion –> schematic and more objective understanding of emotion
   o animals and humans express similar fundamental affective reactions objectively detectable physiological processes
   o some (not all) conclusions from animal studies can be transferred to humans (e.g. wanting vs. liking)

Question 22

wanting vs. liking

dopamine in wanting and liking

• first hypothesis (wrong)
• rat study (oposing evidence)
• human study

–> conclusion

Answer 22

• dopamine mediates pleasure “liking”
  study with rats:
• removal of dopamine left “liking” of food intact (rats > facial expression) but eliminated “wanting” to eat
  study in humans
  dopamine suppressors didn’t reduce ”liking”, but reduced “wanting” of drug in addicts
• -> dopamine increases “wanting” but no effect on“liking”
• -> “liking” and “wanting” are distinct!

Question 23

clinical application of wanting vs. liking

“to much wanting”

“to little wanting”

Answer 23

(Drug) addiction

• -> permanent hyper-reactivity in mesolimbic dopaminergic systems (= mesolimbic sensitization)
• -> intense cravings when see addiction/drug-related cues = “wanting”

“Anhedonia” symptom

• in depression, schizophrenia & Parkinson –> might result from a loss of incentive motivation (“wanting”) NOT loss of pleasure (“liking”)
• -> support: ratings of sensory pleasure were normal, but no action was conducted

Question 24

motivation concepts - drive-reduction theories (veraltet)

- motivation according to the drive theory
- reward according to the drive theory
- drug addicts
- hunger

Answer 24

• motivation = drives –> mostly aversive states that elilicts action to reduce the aversive drive (hunger, thirst, drug withdrawal)
• reward = drive reduction –> negative reinforcement: elimination of aversive stimuli – NOT positive pleasure
  –> still applied to explain drug addiction:
  withdrawal + dysphoria = main force driving of drug-taking (opponent-process theory)

(- hunger
o stimulating hunger neurons in the Hypothalamus –> mice eat (drive reduction), subsequently sensory-specific-satiety (avoid specific flavour)
–> suggestED that stimulated hunger is an aversive drive that mice then associate with the flavor)

Question 25

motivation concepts - evidence agianst the drive theories

• reward = drive reduction???
• rat study
• dog study

Answer 25

studies in rats shoed:

• brain stimulation activating the mesocorticolimbic system in rats induced “wanting” for variety of natural incentives (start eating, drinking, having sex) + rats pressed the button to CONTINUE stimulation
• -> not possible that the aversiveness of drives motivated behavior (reward ≠ drive reduction)
• rats trained to associated one place with hunger and one with food
• hungry rats did not walk to the place where they expected intra-gastric mild (hunger), but eagerly ran to place where they could drink sweet milk
• -> only incentive cue (eg. tasty food) motivated some action (eg. eating), but not a drive cue (eg. hunger)
• it was shown that reducing a physiological drive (eg. hunger) does not necessarily reduce the motivated behavior (eg. eating)
  o daily calories were delivered intravenously to dogs, but continued to eat normally

Question 26

The Positive Incentive Theories

• role of drive states
  –> the three mecahnisms

Answer 26

= motivation directed toward affectively positive incentives
brain motivation systems modulate those incentive values
- role of physiological “drive states” is to amplify the incentive value of relevant incentive stimuli
& to magnify the reward properties
o E.g.: hunger enhances the incentive value of the reward (food) & increase “wanting” and “liking” for foods

–> incentive motivation is focused on reward, which involves 3 categories of mechanism: wanting, liking and learning

Question 27

The Positive Incentive Theories - wanting

Answer 27

“wanting” = incentive salience

• -> generated by large, robust mesocorticolimbic circuity
• -> mediated by DA
• cue-triggered as a temporary peak of desire to obtain an associated reward
• cues are made attractive and attention-grabbing –> helps to motivate action to obtain the goal
• explains why something can be both, motivating and rewarding at the same time

Incentive salience is a mesocorticolimbic form of “wanting” + distinguishable from the cognitive form of wanting which is goal-oriented (based on declarative memories and on expectations of act-outcome relations)!!!

Question 28

The Positive Incentive Theories - liking

–> generated…

brain regions
neurotransmitter

Answer 28

“liking” = hedonic impact of a pleasant reward
–> generated by small, functionally fragile brain circuit (“hedonic hotspots” which are distributed across the brain but act as integrated network)

• hedonic hotspots found in limbic areas (NA, vPallidum), the OFC, Insula
• stimulating one causes recruitment of other hotspots
–> simultaneously activity is necessary to amplify sensory pleasures

–> mediated by opioid, endocannabinoid and related neurotransmitter signals
• injecting those neurotransmitter inside the hedonic hotspots increased “liking”, but injecting them outside the hotspots only stimulated intense “wanting” (without “liking”)

Question 29

The Positive Incentive Theories - learning

=

Answer 29

learning = learning mechanisms tend to focus amplified salience more narrowly on to a particular “wanted” target (because cues are associated with reward)

Question 30

wanting and fear

• similarities and differences

o brain parts
- valence key board

Answer 30

• reward “wanting” and “fear” share overlapping mesolimbic dopamine and NA mechanisms of motivational salience although psychologically opposites
  –> both make external stimulus attention-grabbing + motivationally meaningful
  o incentive salience - attractive
  o fearful salience- threatening (–>fear response)

o active fear response is produced by the NA
o more passive freezing reactions are depend on the AMY circuitry

• NA contains desire-dread valence keyboard (organized from front to back)
  o tapping the anterior sited induces strong wanting o tapping the posterior end elicits strong active fear reactions
• valence of the “keyboard” not solely determined by neuroanatomy, but is influenced by environment (eg. safe vs. dark)

Question 31

fear and disgutst
-fear

• disgust
• neaural mechanisms

Answer 31

• Fear defends against external bodily danger threats
  o fear expressions enhance relevant sensory perception (eye widening)
• Disgust defends against oral and internal toxic threats
  o disgust expressions suppresses relevant sensory perception (head shaking)
• Neural mechanisms generating disgust and fear are mostly distinct (partly overlap in the posterior shell of the nucleus accumbens)
  o posterior NA has 2 “fear” generating modes: glutamate AMPA receptor blockage and GABA receptor activation
  o only GABA mode also generates disgust –>

(produces strong inhibition which releases other neurons into higher excitation levels, thereby adding a qualitative change in the emotion)

Question 32

history of the attribution approach to emotion and motivation

Answer 32

• Motivation and emotions emerged as separate fields of study – but actually they are inherently linked
• Early theories of motivation incorporated emotions only within the pleasure/ pain principle, but they did not recognize specific emotions
  o Lack of something (need) is associated with negative emotions (pain)
  o Achievement (satisfaction of need) is associated with positive emotions (pleasure)
  o Actions should maximize pleasure & to minimize pain
• Atkinson’s theory of achievement motivation introduced more specific emotions
  o First one to acknowledge the reward for achievement behavior are not extrinsic (money, hunger), but intrinsic (affect)
  o Achievement behaviors are determined by the anticipated emotions of pride and shame –> more pride: approach vs. more shame: withdrawal
  o Furthermore, the intensity of the anticipated emotion is determined by the subjective task difficulty
  –> Success in difficult task leads to more pride than success in easy task
  –> Failure in easy task leads to more shame than failure in difficult task
• Later attribution theories suggest that feelings are determined by thoughts, and specifically by causal beliefs. In turn, the feelings direct behavior (motivation).
  o attribution –> emotion –> directs action
  –> Need for help –> controllable cause –> anger –> no aid
  –> Need for help –> uncontrollable cause –> sympathy –> aid

Question 33

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION -
What determines specific emotional reactions to success and failure?
What are the emotional consequences of the different feelings?

Answer 33

• disparate causal beliefs can elicit the same emotional experience, if they can share one or more of the 3 causal properties:
  (1) causal locus
  (2) casaul stability
  (3) casaul control
• -> CAUSE-EMOTION RELATIONSHIP-> causal beliefs are at the core of a most (not all) emotional experiences and motivation

Question 34

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION - Causal locus/location

Answer 34

= internal vs. external cause

• -> Example: success in sports because of GAME = internal cause; success in sports because other team was poor = external cause
• -> success in sports/difficult task - internal causes –> pride

Question 35

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION - Causal stability

Answer 35

= stable/permanent vs. changeable cause

• Causal stability determines expectancies of future success or failure; therefore linked to emotions of confidence, apprehension, hope and helplessness
• Causal stability and causal locus are orthogonal (senkrecht) dimensions:
  internal external
  stable
  unstable

Question 36

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION - Causal control

Answer 36

= changeable by agent or not
–> Example: lack of effort = controllable vs. lack of resources = uncontrollable
- relates to judgements of responsibility and moral emotions such as guilt, remorse, anger, and sympathy
- distinguishable with causal locus & causal stability, yet also overlaps (not orthogonal)
• Example: all external causes are uncontrollable to the actor (but may be controllable by others)

Question 37

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION - Table

Answer 37

Look at figure —> all the differnent emotions

Question 38

ATTRIBUTIONAL APPROACH OF EMOTION - Pros and Cons of the theory

Answer 38

• does not address most fundamental issue of motivation (reward etc.)
  + BUT predicts behavior based upon causal beliefs & emotional reactions
• conceptual linkages/ associations are nothing other than common sense
  + BUT theory attempts to systematize common sense (=naïve theory) > insights not available to any layperson
• cannot explain help-giving: anticipated rewards or social norms are main determinant of helping, not perceived control and sympathy
  + BUT control and sympathy play a big role
• disgust is the main emotional reaction to moral transgression –> theory states anger
  + BUT anger has mitigators: we judge it morally wrong if healthy person commits crime, but less so if mentally disabled person does the same (both situations elicit disgust to the same extent)
• overemphasizes rationality of emotional life & does not take into account unconscious motivations (real causes for emotions are often unknown)
  + BUT unconscious mechanisms might be activated when reachin causal conclusions