Tapper, K. (2021). Evolutionary and historical determinants of health (Chapter 2). In Health psychology and behaviour change. From science to practice. Red Globe Press.

Question 1

how does natural selection work?

Answer 1

• if a member of a species survives long enough to reproduce, their characteristics will be more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations
• if a member of a species has more offspring then these characteristics will be more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations
• so any characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce will be more likely to occur in later generations, and will become more prevalent in the population
• any characteristic that works agains survival and reproduction will become less common

Question 2

hoelang geleden: bipedal walking & simple stone tools & vuur met speren

Answer 2

• bipedal walking: 6-7 miljoen jaar geleden
• simple stone tools: 2 miljoen jaar geleden
• vuur met speren (homo sapiens en homo neanderthalensis): 400.000 jaar geleden

Question 3

We can draw on four main sources of evidence to try to figure out how our huntergatherer ancestors might have lived:

Answer 3

1. We can look at the few remaining contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, for example the Hadza nomads of Tanzania, the Kalahari Bushmen of Southern Africa, or the Aché of South America (but, lifestyles are unlikely to still be the exact same as over the last last ten millennia).
2. We can examine fossil records, both of people themselves, and of nearby deposits such as faeces, and also plant remains on teeth and tools (but: fossils are very scarce, and not representative of a whole group).
3. We can look at our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos.
4. More recently, we have been able to test hypotheses about natural selection by examining our own genes.
5. fossils
6. modern hunter gatherer tribes (Hadza nomads of Tanzania, the Kalahari Bushmen of Southern Africa, or the Aché of South America)
7. apes
8. genetics research

Question 4

wat zou het typische hunter-gatherer dieet zijn

Answer 4

It would be a mistake to think that we could identify a ‘typical’ hunter-gatherer or ‘Palaeolithic’ diet. The diets of hunter-gatherers would have varied with both time and place.

Question 5

palaeolithic=

Answer 5

the period in history characterised by hominins’ use of primitive stone tools. It extends from 2.6 million years ago to around 10,000 years ago. Sometimes referred to as ‘the Stone Age’.

Question 6

wat word gezien als een groot onderdeel van waarom het menselijke ras succesvol is geworden

Answer 6

our versability when it comes to food: being able to find food in different environments would have allowed our ancestors to exploit the different types of habitat found in africa, and to survive the major changes in climate that took place during homonin evolution.

Question 7

we will probably never know much about our ancestors diets because….

Answer 7

Foods perish and will often leave no trace in the fossil record. Even where we do have fossil evidence, in many instances it is so limited it would be unwise to accept it as representative of an entire species

Question 8

twee voorbeelden van wild eten dat is veranderd

Answer 8

• bananas: a wild banana contains lots of large, hard black seeds,
• avocados: a wild avocado contains one very large stone, surrounded by a rather disappointingly thin layer of flesh.

Question 9

cultivation: wat is het en wat is het effect hiervan

Answer 9

1. As farmers, we have worked quite hard to cultivate varieties of fruit and vegetables that we prefer to eat – sweeter, less bitter, and with less ‘waste’ in the form of inedible seeds and stones.
2. Wild plants often have higher concentrations of vitamins and minerals compared to their cultivated cousins, as well as more variation in vitamin and mineral content. They have higher levels of protein and fibre and the presence of small insects and larvae in wild fruit could also be an important source of essential micronutrients for the less squeamish consumer

Question 10

hoe zag het dieet van hunter-gatherers er waarschijnlijk meer uit vergeleken met nu

Answer 10

they would have consumed more fibre, less sugar, salt, fat and calories.

Question 11

the ability to control fire:

Answer 11

a very significant innovation, providing warmth, protection from predators, and the ability to cook food

Question 12

child rearing differences then vs. now

Answer 12

• average birth interval was toen 3.7 jaar
• babies were still breastfed long after their second birthday
• babies were carried by their mother or another carer for most of the day, and sleep next to their mom at night

Question 13

evolutionary adaptations with food

Answer 13

• People developed preferences for rare but important nutrients (sugar, fat, salt), as this was an advantage in that time
• These preferences may contribute to health issues in modern environments because of overload

Question 14

agraricultural revolution

Answer 14

• Began around 11,000 years ago, marking a significant shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled farming communities.
• Led to major changes in diet:
  1. Shift from wild plants and game to cultivated crops and domesticated animals
  2. Reduced variety in plant species consumed (from 50-100 to primarily 30 crops today)
  3. Decreased nutritional content of plants due to cultivation practices
  4. Increased consumption of grains like maize, rice, and wheat
• Lifestyle changes included: reduced physical activity compared to hunter-gatherer ancestors, altered sleep patterns and daily routines
• Disease patterns shifted: increased population density, therefore more rapid spread of infectious diseases. Greater exposure to zoonotic diseases due to close contact with domesticated animals

Question 15

The Epidemiological Transition:

Answer 15

• Represents a shift in the primary health concerns from infectious diseases to chronic diseases
• This transition is closely linked to changes brought about by modernization:
  1. Dietary changes: Increased consumption of processed foods, added sugars, salts, and fats
  2. Reduced physical activity: Due to technological advancements and sedentary lifestyles
  3. Environmental factors: Exposure to pollutants and new chemicals
  4. Changes in childrearing practices: Reduced breastfeeding duration, changes in infant sleep arrangements

Question 16

Modern Life vs. Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle:

Answer 16

• Debate centers on whether aspects of hunter-gatherer lifestyles should be adopted for better health
• Benefits of hunter-gatherer lifestyle:
  1. More diverse and nutritious diet from wild plants and game
  2. Higher levels of physical activity
  3. Extended breastfeeding and close physical contact with infants
• Drawbacks of modern lifestyle:
  1. Processed foods with added sugars, salts, and fats
  2. Sedentary behavior and reduced physical activity
  3. Shorter breastfeeding duration and altered childrearing practices
• Examples of modern trends mimicking hunter-gatherer practices:
  1. Barefoot running or “minimalist footwear” to simulate natural running
  2. Paleo diets attempting to replicate ancestral eating patterns
  3. Increased interest in extended breastfeeding and co-sleeping