L5: Digital media use and health: understanding impacts and behavioural change

Question 1

1. Describe the relationships between smartphone and social media use and mental and behavioural health;
2. Explain the relationships between smartphone and social media use and mental and behavioural health (‘why’ and ‘how’);
3. Distinguish between regular use and problematic use;
4. Describe why digital media behaviour can be difficult to change.

Answer 1

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Question 2

digital transformation=

Answer 2

Ongoing process as technology continues to evolve:
* Global connectivity: access to information and resources
* Online learning: education platforms
* Entrepreneurship: lower barriers for starting business

Question 3

virtual socialization:

Answer 3

• Smartphone
• Social media
• Augmented and mixed reality, fake news

Question 4

positive consequences of digital transformation

Answer 4

• social connectivity
• support networks
• self-expression
• identity development
• technology can enhance well-being

Question 5

negative consequences of digital transformation

Answer 5

• social comparisons
• cyberbullying
• digital literacy
• privacy concerns
• cybersecurity concerns
• digital/tech stress

Question 6

research on digital media use right now

Answer 6

• Frequency of screen use
• Correlational, cross-sectional
• Mixed in terms of the directionality
• Small associations
• No way of separating cause from effect

But this does not mean that…
* Digital media does not matter for adolescent mental health
* Rather: that well-designed and interpreted studies on this topic are more important than ever

Question 7

what kind of research do we need in digital media field?

Answer 7

Research that goes beyond frequencies:
* What are the patterns of use?
* Within-person fluctuations?
* Inter-relations online and offline / one interacting context?
* Explanatory mechanisms?

Question 8

also many different terms used:

Answer 8

• Problematic use
• Excessive use
• Smartphone use disorder
• Smartphone dependence
• Smartphone addiction / social media addiction
• Intensity / frequency of use

Question 9

problematic use versus addiction

Answer 9

• Comparison to Substance Addiction: There’s a question about whether “technology” addiction is equivalent to substance-related addictions. This reflects an ongoing debate in the field about whether excessive technology use can be classified as a true addiction.
• Signs of Problematic Use: suggesting that there are identifiable behaviors that indicate when smartphone and social media use becomes problematic.
• Potential Over-estimation: A recent meta-analysis study reported an average Smartphone Addiction Scale - Short Version (SAS-SV) score of 28.78 (SD = 4.16). This suggests that the prevalence or severity of smartphone addiction might be overestimated in some cases.
• Device vs. Application: An important distinction is made between addiction to the smartphone itself and addiction to specific applications on it (e.g., games, social media sites). This highlights the complexity of diagnosing and addressing technology-related addictions.

Question 10

Belangrijk:

• Critically consider whether smartphone addiction exists
• Weak evidence based on review of current quantitative literature
• Avoid using stigmatizing language

Answer 10

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Question 11

Based on qualitative interviews, we do find addiction-like symptoms DSM-5 and ICD-11):

Answer 11

• Craving, salience and preoccupation
• Negative effects of smartphone: loss of control, coping, tolerance-like and withdrawal-like symptoms

Also, beyond traditional addiction criteria:
* Habitual smartphone use
* Disruptive distractions from daily life
* Vital role of smartphone in daily life

Question 12

symptoms of problematic smartphone use

Answer 12

• Lover sleep quality & insomnia
• Depression / depressive symptoms
• Anxiety
• Perceived stress
• Poor educational attainment

Question 13

two types of social media use and what they are associated with

Answer 13

1. Active Social Media Use:
   - This involves actively engaging with content, such as posting, commenting, or interacting with others.
   - It shows a negative association with depressive and anxiety symptoms, meaning that active use may be linked to fewer symptoms.
2. Passive Social Media Use:
   - This involves scrolling through feeds without much interaction.
   - It shows a positive association with depressive and anxiety symptoms, suggesting that passive use may be linked to more symptoms.

Question 14

gender differences and similarities regarding symptoms due to social media use

Answer 14

• girls stronger associations regarding depressive symptoms
• passive use related to greater anxiety symptoms for both genders

Question 15

what seems to be a resilience factor for social media use

Answer 15

self-esteem

Question 16

definitie social media use

Answer 16

SMU: the active (e.g. posting) or passive (e.g. browsing), private (one-to-one) or public (e.g. one-to-many) usage of SM platforms, such as Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, WeChat, and WhatsApp

Question 17

findings of multiple studies regarding social media use

Answer 17

• The effects of social media use are complex and not easily categorized as simply “good” or “bad.”, the interpretation of the associations matters.
• Different research methods (meta-analyses vs. reviews) can lead to different interpretations of the same data: meta-analyses have only small or moderate effect sizes, systematic and narrative reviews allow more room for differing interpretations
• The relationships between social media use and various outcomes are often weak and inconsistent.
• Confounding factors are present: time spent on social media is not a strong predictor of problematic use, suggesting other factors are at play.

Question 18

wat is de relatie tussen social media use and substance use

Answer 18

frequency of social media use & problematic social media use can predict tobacco/alcohol/marijuana/laughing gas use.

parental rules about screen time & parental rules about drug use moderate this relationship

Question 19

therefore there is mixed evidence due to:

Answer 19

• Complex relationships (causality?Comorbidity?)
• Lack of definitions of ‘use’ and mental health
• Lack of insight in the patterns of social media and smartphone use
• Content and quality of interactions
• Lack of insight in within-individual fluctuations
• Need for good assessment tools

Question 20

social comparison theory

Answer 20

• Upward Comparison: Individuals compare themselves to others whom they perceive as superior in some way. It might lead to inspiration or motivation to improve but can also result in feelings of inadequacy.
• Downward Comparison: This happens when individuals compare themselves to others whom they perceive as inferior. Downward comparison can lead to enhanced self-esteem but may also involve feelings of guilt or decreased motivation.
• Excessive or unfavorable social comparisons can impact mental well-being. Constantly comparing oneself to others, especially in a negative light, may lead to feelings of inadequacy, jealousy, or low self-esteem

Question 21

how is reward related to social media

Answer 21

1) Social media provides Intermittent Reinforcement: This is a powerful psychological principle where behaviors are reinforced only some of the time: rewards are not given consistently or predictably, but rather at irregular intervals. It’s known to create strong, persistent behaviors that are resistant to extinction.
2) Liking of posts provides positive reinforcement
3) Unpredictability: The unpredictable nature of when and how often these rewards (like likes, comments, or shares) will occur keeps users engaged and checking their accounts frequently.
4) Reward Learning: Over time, users may learn to associate social media use with the potential for reward, strengthening the behavior of using these platforms

Question 22

comorbidities

Answer 22

• Anxiety
• Depression
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Autism spectrum disorder

Other subgroups:
* Social economic positioning
* Digital literacy

Question 23

who’s responsibility is the excessive use of social media?

Answer 23

• Tech companies (Google etc) part of the problem or part of the solution?
• Digital literacy (tools to screen; DigIQ)
• Warning 1-hour of scrolling?

Question 24

motivation in social media use

Answer 24

• When are we with our own thoughts?
• Is less external input important?
• Do people really want to change?

Question 25

interventions and strategies

Answer 25

• Digital detox (not always a solution)
• Days where intentionally disconnecting from smartphone and engage in activities that don’t involve screens
• Goal-setting
• Self-monitoring
• Schedule ‘phone-free zones’
• Setting boundaries, healthy balance

Question 26

Surgeon General Issues New Advisory About Effects Social Media Use Has on Youth Mental Health

Answer 26

• Policymakers can take steps to strengthen safety standards and limit access in ways that make social media safer for children of all ages, better protect children’s privacy, support digital and media literacy, and fund additional research.
• Technology companies can better and more transparently assess the impact of their products on children, share data with independent researchers to increase our collective understanding of the impacts, make design and development decisions that prioritize safety and health – including
  protecting children’s privacy and better adhering to age minimums – and improve systems to provide effective and timely responses to complaints.
• Parents and caregivers can make plans in their households such as establishing tech-free zones that better foster in-person relationships, teach kids about responsible online behavior and model that behavior, and report problematic content and activity.
• Children and adolescents can adopt healthy practices like limiting time on platforms, blocking unwanted content, being careful about sharing personal information, and reaching out if they or a friend need help or see harassment or abuse on the platforms.
• Researchers can further prioritize social media and youth mental health research that can support the establishment of standards and evaluation of best practices to support children’s health.