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T3 Science Exam Revision Flashcards

1
Q

Name the three compositional layers of the Earth

A

Crust, mantle, core

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2
Q

Name the five mechanical layers of the earth

A

Lithosphere, aesthenosphere, mesosphere, inner core and outer core

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3
Q

Describe the features of the lithosphere

A
  • Made up of tectonic plates
  • Rigid, breaks easily
  • Located in the uppermost mantle and crust
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4
Q

Describe the features of the aesthenosphere

A
  • Beneath the lithosphere
  • Top part of the mantle
  • Flowy, is the location of convection currents
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5
Q

Describe the features of the mesosphere

A

Composed of strong rocks that slowly deform due to intense heat and pressure, the mesosphere is located beneath the asthenosphere

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6
Q

Describe the features of the outer core

A

The outer core is beneath the mantle and surrounds the inner core. It is composed of liquid iron and nickel, and controls the Earth’s magnetic field

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7
Q

Describe the features of the inner core

A

The inner core is the centre of the Earth, and made of solid iron (primarily) and small amounts of nickel. Despite the intense heat, the inner core is solid due to the immense pressure.

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8
Q

What are the two types of crust?

A

Oceanic and continental

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9
Q

Compare and contrast oceanic and continental crusts

A

Continental:
- Less dense than oceanic crusts
- Made of granite
- 30-50KM thick

Oceanic:
- More dense than continental crusts -
- Approx 8KM thick
- Composed of dense rock, like basalt
- Slips beneath continental plates at converging boundaries- creating subduction zones

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10
Q

What is the theory of continental drift?

A

In 1912. German meteorologist Alfred Wegner proposed a new theory- the Continental Drift Theory- that suggested the continents were slowly drifting across the Earth over a weaker mantle, sometimes pushing through ocean crust and colliding with each other.

  • he also proposed that Earth was once a supercontinent called Pangea
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11
Q

Name three key people in the development of the Continental Drift theory and describe their contribution

A

Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (1858)
- Proposed that the identical fossil plants in North America and Europe could be explained if they were once connected (Pangea)

Alfred Wegner (1912)
- Proposed the continental drift theory, supported by the fossil evidence

Harry Hess (1962)
- Discovered that new sea floor was being created at mid-ocean ridges
- This provided a driving force for the movement of the continets in the theory of Continental Drift

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12
Q

State the four main pieces of evidence Arthur Wegner used to support his continental drift theory

A
  1. The apparent fit of the continents - how they fit with each other
  2. Fossil correlation - identical fossils could be found in completely different locations which could be explained by Continental Drift
  3. Geologic structures - rock and mountain correlation - The matching up of similar rocks in different locations
  4. Paleoclimate data
    - Evidence of glaciers - glacial striations
    - Concluded that the continents were not always near the equator, but rather closer to the poles, where the climate allowed for glaciers to form, and therefore would have had to move over time
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13
Q

Who first proposed continental drift?

A

In 1596, Cartographer Abraham Ortelius was the first to point out the similarities between Africa and South America’s coastlines, suggesting they might have once been joined.

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14
Q

What is a mesosaurus?

A

A fresh water animal with fossils found in the southern tip of South America and Africa

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15
Q

Explain the process of sea floor spreading

A

Sea floor spreading is when magma breaks through a weaker part of the oceanic crust and rises, pushing the crust out of its way and cooling, creating new sea floor.

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16
Q

What is magnetic striping?

A

Magnetic striping shows the normal magnetic polarity and the reversed magnetic polarity that has occurred in the Earth over time

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17
Q

How does magnetic striping occur?

A

Magnetic striping occurs when the north pole becomes the south and vice versa. The stripes show this reversal and indicate that the youngest rock is next to the ridges and the oldest next to the trenches.

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18
Q

How does seafloor spreading support Wegner’s theory of Continental Drift?

A

Sea floor spreading explains how continents can drift apart. As new crust forms at the mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, it causes the continents to move away from each other. This process supports Wegener’s idea that continents were once joined together in a supercontinent (Pangaea) and have since drifted apart.

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19
Q

Where in the Earth’s crust do convection currents occur?

A

The mantle

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20
Q

Explain the process of convection currents

A

Convection currents occur in the mantle, which is made up of viscous molten rock that rises as the particles heat up and become less dense. Once these particles reach the lithosphere, they cool down, become more dense and drop back down, creating convection currents.

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21
Q

How do convection currents result in different types of movement at plate boundaries?

A

The powerful cycle of convection currents, once they reach the tectonic plates in the lithosphere, can slowly push the plate apart (diverging plate boundaries), or conversely, pushes plates together (convergent plate boundaries). .

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22
Q

How do you plot co-ordinates on a map?

A

Using the equator and the Prime Meridian, you find the latitude and longitude of a plate and line it up so both numbers match.

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23
Q

Define latitude

A

Latitude is how far north or south of the Equator a place is

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24
Q

Define longitude

A

Longitude is how far east or west of the Prime Meridian something is

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25
Q

What is a transform plate boundary?

A

A transform plate boundary is when two or more tectonic plates slide/grind against each other in opposite directions

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26
Q

What can happen at transform plate boundaries?

A

Feature formed:
Transform fault (basically a big break in the rock where the movement of the plates has occurred)

Activity that occurs as a result:
Earthquakes

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27
Q

What is an example of a transform fault?

A

The San Andreas fault in California

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28
Q

Define convergent plate boundaries

A

Converging plate boundaries (also called destructive plate boundaries) are where plates come together. There are three types of converging plate boundaries:
1. Oceanic - continental : the oceanic plate is pulled beneath the continental plate (this is called subduction)
2. Oceanic - oceanic
Continental - continental

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29
Q

What activities/features occur at convergent boundaries?

A

Oceanic- continental:
Trench and volcanoes, subduction zones

Oceanic-oceanic:
Oceanic trenches, underwater volcanoes, subduction zones

Continental-continental:
Mountain ranges

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30
Q

Is a convergent plate boundary constructive or destructive?

A

Destructive

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31
Q

Is a divergent plate boundary constructive or destructive?

A

Constructive

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32
Q

Explain how continental-continental converging plate boundaries result in mountain ranges

A

When the plates converge (meet together) they fold upwards and create mountain ranges (the mountains occur along the boundary where they have folded upwards, which is why there is more than one mountain created).

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33
Q

Explain how continental-oceanic converging plate boundaries result in trenches and volcanoes

A

When the plates collide, the denser plate (oceanic plate) subducts beneath the continental plate, which causes a trench. When the subducted plate falls beneath the crust and into the boiling hot mantle, it turns into molten rock and fuels a magma hotspot beneath the continental plate, eventually resulting in a volcano

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34
Q

Explain how oceanic- oceanic converging plate boundaries result in underwater trenches and volcanoes

A

Oceanic-oceanic convergent boundaries are the same as oceanic-continental, just all underwater.

(Subducted plate creates magma hotspot in the mantle beneath the crust, and trench is formed in the subduction zone)

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35
Q

Define divergent plate boundaries

A

When two plates pull apart, move away from each other. Has two sub types: oceanic and oceanic, continental and continental

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36
Q

Give an example of a convergent continental-continental geological feature

A

The Himalayas

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37
Q

Give an example of a divergent plate boundary

A

Sea floor spreading
- when the oceanic plates pull apart and magma from the mantle comes up, cooling into new sea floor

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38
Q

Define a fault line

A

A fault line is a fracture in the tectonic plates rock

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39
Q

What happens at a continental-continental divergent plate boundary

A

The two continental plates pull apart, creating a rift valley (big divots/rifts in the ground that eventually fill with water to create e.g. river)

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40
Q

What happens at an oceanic-oceanic divergent plate boundary?

A

The two oceanic plates pull apart in a process called sea floor spreading. Magma from the mantle beneath the tectonic plates rises up to fill the gap and eventually hardens, creating new sea floor

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41
Q

Define earthquake

A

an earthquake is the sudden violent shaking in the ground that is caused by the big release of energy from two tectonic plates shooting past each other

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42
Q

Define focus - also called hypocentre (in relation to an earthquake)

A

The point where the energy is released (always directly below the epicentre)

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43
Q

Define epicentre

A

The epicentre is the point DIRECTLY ABOVE the focus (or hypocentre)

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44
Q

Define seismic wave

A

Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth, usually caused by earthquakes or explosions. They help us understand what’s happening inside the Earth by measuring how these waves move and change.

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45
Q

Name the four main design strategies that can protect buildings against earthquakes

A

Base isolation
Dampers
Cross Bracing
Outrigger framing support

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46
Q

How does the feature of base isolation help to protect buildings from earthquakes

A

allow the building to move independently of the ground shaking beneath it

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47
Q

How does the feature of dampeners help to protect buildings from earthquakes

A

act like shock absorbers - dampening the motion of the building

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48
Q

How does the feature of cross bracing help to protect buildings from earthquakes

A

makes the building stronger and able to withstand the shaking motion

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49
Q

How does the feature of outrigger framing support help to protect buildings from earthquakes

A

improves the building strength by connecting the inner core or columns to outer columns.
- helps to support the building as it sways

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50
Q

Describe the relationship between earthquake activity and tsunamis

A

When two converging oceanic plates collide, the denser plate subducts beneath the other, simultaneously pushing the other plate up. When this plate shoots up, the energy and force pushes the water above it up as well, creating a huge wave and is a tsunami.

51
Q

What plate boundaries do volcanoes most commonly form at?

A

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES:
Oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries
Continental-oceanic plate boundaries

52
Q

What type of convergent plate boundaries do volcanoes form at and how do they form?

A

OCEANIC - OCEANIC
CONTINENTAL - OCEANIC

When the denser of the two plates subducts beneath the other, it burns in the magma beneath the crust in a hotspot, which then erupts through the crust to eventually form volcanoes

53
Q

Why are there no active volcanoes in Australia?

A

Because we are not at a plate boundary, and not near any convergent boundaries, volcanoes cannot form

54
Q

Distinguish between lava and magma

A

Magma is the molten rock BENEATH the Earth’s surface, and becomes lava once it reaches the surface of the Earth

55
Q

How do volcanoes form at mid-ocean rifts?

A

When the two plates pull apart, an opening is created for the magma to burst through and create a volcano

56
Q

Describe the flow of lava during a volcanic eruption

A

Depending on its composition and temp, lava flow can be fluid or very sticky and viscous

57
Q

How was the Great Dividing Range formed?

A

When NZ ripped away from Australia, the coast of Australia became really weak, allowing for magma to rise up through the crust and create a line of volcanoes. However, once the tectonic plates shifted, no magma was able to come up through the volcanoes and so they became mountains.

58
Q

True/false: Australia has hundreds of dormant volcanoes

A

TRUE

59
Q

Why does Australia have so many dormant volcanoes?

A

Because we are not on any plate boundaries, plates cannot collide and subduct, fuelling the magma chambers that would shoot upwards and cause the volcano to erupt

60
Q

How was Uluru formed?

A
  • Started as a big pile of sediment
  • A great flood wet the sand and began to press down
  • The pressure became so much the the grainy sand fused to solid sandstone
  • 400 million years later, Uluru flips on its side
  • Elements erode away the softer sandstone until the durable sandstone remained
61
Q

How do igneous rocks form?

A

Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidifying magma or lava

62
Q

Name and compare the types of igneous rocks

A

EXTRUSIVE:
Forms on the earth’s surface, with small crystals. Formed from cooling lava.

INTRUSIVE:
Forms inside the volcano, in the magma chamber, has large crystals. Formed from cooling magma

63
Q

Identify two types of extrusive igneous rocks

A

Basalt
Andesite

64
Q

Identify two types of intrusive igneous rocks

A

Granite
Gabbro

65
Q

What are granite and basalt rocks used for?

A

Construction - countertops, tile, building stones etc

66
Q

Are basalt and granite igneous?

A

Yes

67
Q

How are sedimentary rocks formed

A

These rocks are formed when erosion and deposition creates layers of sediments. Over time, more and more layers of sediments pile up and they are pushed together by compaction, eventually forming a rock.

68
Q

Explain the Law of Superposition

A

This principle states that layers of rock are superimposed, or laid down one on top of another. The oldest rock strata will be on the bottom and the youngest at the top.

69
Q

How does the Law of Superposition help geologists with their work?

A

By helping them to determine the relative ages of rock strata, or layers.

70
Q

Name two sedimentary rocks

A

Sandstone (e.g. Uluru!!)
Limestone

71
Q

How do metamorphic rocks form?

A

Metamorphic rocks are derived from igneous or sedimentary rocks that have changed their appearance or mineral composition due to the intense heat and pressure beneath the Earth’s surface.

72
Q

What is an index fossil

A

Index fossils are fossils that help determine the age of other fossils and rock found in the same sedimentary layer

73
Q

Define strata

A

Layers of sedimentary rock

74
Q

Define deposition

A

When the sediments of weathered rock are transported by elements and settle all in one place

75
Q

What are the 3 main types of weathering?

A
  • Physical
  • Chemical
  • Biological
76
Q

TRUE/FALSE
Extrusive igneous rocks have fine crystals

A

TRUE

77
Q

What are the 2 types of physical weathering?

A

Exfoliation weathering (hot environments)

Freeze thaw weathering (cold - very cold - environments)

78
Q

What is biological weathering?

A

the disintegration of rock due to the actions of organisms such as bacteria, plants and animals

79
Q

What is exfoliation weathering?

A

Exfoliation weathering is the repeated heating and cooling of rock that causes the surface layers of the rock to flake off

80
Q

What is freeze thaw weathering

A

Caused by the melting and freezing of water

81
Q

What is EROSION

A

the action of surface processes such as water flow or wind, that remove weathered rock and transport it to another place

82
Q

What is the name of a sedimentary rock with grains of all different sizes?

A

Conglomerate

83
Q

What is an example of a sedimentary rock that is made up of mineral grains that can be easily seen and felt

A

Sandstone

84
Q

What is an example of a sedimentary rock that is made up of mineral grains that CAN’T be easily SEEN but CAN be FELT

A

Siltstone

85
Q

What is an example of a sedimentary rock that is made up of mineral grains that cannot be seen or felt

A

Mudstone

86
Q

What are the textural and mineral features of FOLIATED metamorphic rocks?

A
  • Obvious differences is grain sizes
  • Layers and stripes
87
Q

What are the textural and mineral features of UNFOLIATED metamorphic rocks?

A
  • Hard to visually separate grain sizes
  • Crystals and colours not organized
88
Q

What are some features of metamorphic rocks in general?

A
  • Have interlocking crystals
  • Can have layers (foliation)
  • Can be very dense
  • Can have deformed fossils
89
Q

What are the two types of metamorphism of rocks that occur in nature?

A
  1. Contact metamorphism
  2. Regional metamorphism
90
Q

Describe contact metamorphism

A

When an existing rock comes into contact with really intense heat (e.g. lava/magma) and changes form (METAMORPHISM)

91
Q

Describe regional metamorphism

A
  • When an existing rock comes into contact with really intense pressure, which changes it into a metamorphic rock
  • e.g. At a convergent plate boundary, when the two plates are pushing together, the rocks caught in the middle will engage in regional metamorphism
92
Q

If you add heat and pressure to shale, what rock does it metamorphosize into?

A

Slate

93
Q

If you add heat and pressure to slate, what rock does it metamorphosize into?

A

Schist

94
Q

If you add heat and pressure to schist, what rock does it metamorphosize into?

A

Gneiss

Scale:
shale - slate - schist - gneiss

95
Q

What is foliated rock?

A

A type of metamorphic rock that has distinct, repetitive layers

e.g. gneiss

96
Q

What type of metamorphism causes foliation in the metamorphic rock?

A

Regional metamorphism

97
Q

What is the key idea of the rock cycle

A

That rocks are continually changing from one type to the other and back again

  • the cycle continues endlessly (with the help of geological processes)
98
Q

What is the progression of rock types if the steps in the rock cycle are as follows? Melting and cooling → erosion and deposition → burial with increased temperature and pressure.

A

Igneous → sedimentary → metamorphic

99
Q

Name the 7 MAJOR tectonic plates that make up the lithosphere

A

Pacific plate
Nazca plate
North American plate
African plate
Antartic plate
Indo-australian plate
Eurasian plate

REMEMBER: ANNAPEI
(African, Nazca, North (american), Antarctic, Pacific, Eurasian, Indo-australian)

100
Q

define geological processes

A

geological processes are the natural processes that shape the physical makeup of the Earth

101
Q

Do extrusive igneous rocks from from quickly or slowly cooling lava?

A

QUICKLY COOLING lava

102
Q

Define minerals

A

Minerals are naturally occurring solid substances found in the earth’s crust. There are 2 types of minerals, metallic and non-metallic

103
Q

What are ores?

A

Ores are minerals mined from the ground. They are what METALLIC MINERALS are called

104
Q

What are the 5 characteristics that a mineral must have to be classified as a mineral

A
  1. naturally occurring
  2. solid at room temperature
  3. Inorganic - (this means it was not made from a living thing) e.g. seeds are made from trees (living things) but rocks are made from minerals which are NOT LIVING
  4. fixed chemical formula
  5. atoms are arranged in an orderly structure (crystalline)
105
Q

Are rocks metallic or non-metallic minerals?

A

Non metallic

106
Q

Name the 7 unique chemical and physical properties of minerals

A
  1. Class - the class is just the general ‘group’ or ‘type’ that the specific mineral or gemstone belongs to
  2. Composition - how the crystalline solid’s particles are arranged
  3. Hardness - the ability of the mineral to resist scratching or abrasion (its durability) - this can depend on the direction in which the mineral is scratched
  4. Fracture - when a crystal has split in an irregular fashion, creating a jagged edge or surface
  5. Cleavage - the tendency of a crystal to split along certain regular plains, leaving newly exposed faces that are flat and smooth.
  6. Lustre - the way of describing how light interacts with the surface of a mineral
  7. Streak - streak is the colour of a mineral that is left when it is dragged across a rough, white surface, usually unpolished porcelain.
107
Q

What are the 3 defining characteristics of a rock

A
  1. Solid at room temperature
  2. Made up of mineral particles
  3. Developed by geological processes
108
Q

What is the Mohs hardness scale?

A

A scale that ranks minerals on their ‘hardness’ (their ability to resist scratching)

109
Q

True or false:
Diamond is the hardest mineral

A

TRUE

110
Q

If fluorite can scratch calcite, but calcite cannot scratch fluorite, is fluorite harder or softer than calcite?

A

Harder

111
Q

Name 3 examples of metamorphic rocks and list their common uses

A

Marble
* Construction and Architecture
* Sculpture
* Countertops

Quartzite
* Construction
* Decorative Stone
* Stone Tools

Gneiss
* Interior uses: Kitchen or bathroom countertops, decorative walls, flooring, and interior decoration.

Exterior uses: Garden decoration, paving stone, facades, and building stone.

112
Q

Explain how you could show that calcite is harder than talc.

A

By attempting to scratch the talc with the calcite. If it scratches the talc, then calcite is harder

113
Q

How can you identify if a volcano is due to a hotpot?

A
  1. If the volcano is not near any plate boundaries
  2. If there is a trail of volcanoes behind/in front of the volcano (this is because the plate on which the volcano/s are on is constantly moving in one direction over the stationary hotspot
114
Q

Is oxidation an example of physical, chemical or biological weathering?

A

Chemical

115
Q

Is plant roots growing in a crack in the rock and widening it an example of physical, chemical or biological weathering?

A

Biological
- because it involves the activity of a plant!

116
Q

Where does magnetic striping occur?

A

Divergent plate boundaries

117
Q

In longitude, how different are 180 degrees east from 180 degrees west, at the Equator?

A

Not different, they are the same

118
Q

How do we classify rock types?

A

The process by which they are formed

If you are given pictures of rocks and don’t know what type, look for:
- Foliation (regional metamorphism)

  • Strata (sedimentary)
  • Crystals (igneous, intrusive)
119
Q

What are the uses of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks?

A

Sedimentary rocks are often used in construction (like limestone for building) and as sources of valuable minerals and fossil fuels (like coal).

Metamorphic rocks are used for roofing materials (like slate), as decorative stones (like marble), and in sculpture.

Igneous rocks are commonly used for construction (like granite for countertops) and in making tools or statues.

120
Q

What is a hotspot?

A

A super hot area of magma

121
Q

Do continental - continental convergent boundaries result in earthquakes?

A

Yes, because these collision would release A LOT of energy, causing an earthquake

122
Q

What is a hotspot, and how does it form volcanic islands?

A

A hotspot is a specific area of super hot magma that can burst through the crust above it. The lava then cools and over time forms a volcano. As the tectonic plate moves over the hotspot, a trail of volcanoes is created

e.g Hawaiin Islands

123
Q

How can the age of rocks on the ocean floor provide evidence for plate tectonics?

A

The age of rocks on the ocean floor increases with distance from mid-ocean ridges. This pattern supports the idea that new crust is formed at ridges and spreads outward, confirming sea-floor spreading. This can be measured based on patterns of magnetic striping present in the rock.

124
Q

What are the two most obvious fit of coastlines between the continents

A

South America and Africa

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