T-3 Flashcards
Baroreceptors
- Sensitive to blood pressure changes
* Send messages to the cardiac and vasomotor centers in the medulla of the brain
What happens when blood pressure increases?
- Cardiac center stimulates parasympathetic nerves that slow heart rate
- Vasomotor center INHIBITS sympathetic nerves that constrict blood vessels
- Blood pressure is reduced
Angiotensin
• Hormone that raises blood pressure
Angiotensin(tension-tight-raises pressure)
Aldosterone
- Helps regulate salt excretion
* Affects blood volume and blood pressure
Cardiac output (CO)
- Stroke volume times heart rate
* Stroke volume depends on venous return and on neural messages and hormones, especially epinephrine and norepinephrine
Starling’s law of the heart
• The more blood delivered to the heart by the veins, the more blood the heart pumps
The walls of arteries and veins are thick and do not allow materials to pass through; What three layers do they have?
tunica intima (the inner layer composed of endothelium),
tunica media (middle layer composed of connective tissue and smooth muscle)
tunica adventitia (outer layer composed of elastic and collagen fibers)
Compare the types of internal defense mechanisms (specific or not) in invertebrates and vertebrates
Non-specific defense mechanisms exist in invertebrates including phagocytes; chemical defense mechanisms are in sponges.
Vertebrates, have both non-specific and specific immune responses due to the specialized lymphatic system that can make antibodies due to lymphocytes.
Antigen
An antigen is any foreign material (it can be protein, nucleic acid, silicone, pollen, etc) recognized as non-self.
The 5 classes of immunoglobulins
G, A, M, E, D.
IgG
makes up 75% of the immunoglobulins
IgM
Along with IgG, defend against the major pathogens.
IgA
IgA is a surface-associated immunoglobulin and is found in mucus, tears, saliva and breast milk and prevents pathogens from attaching to the surface.
IgD
IgD is present in low concentrations and, with IgM, is involved in the functioning of B cells.
IgE
IgE is involved in allergies and parasitic infections and participates in release of histamine.
The three types of lymphocytes include
B, T, and natural killer (NK) cells.
T cells are responsible for
Cellular immunity originating from stem cells in the bone marrow but becoming immunocompetent in the thymus; they attack tumor cells and cells infected by pathogens.
Suppressor T cells
Suppressor T cells release cytokines that inhibit the B cells (and some T cells) from acting.
Contrast a secondary with a primary immune response
Primary immune response-
Stimulated by the first exposure to an antigen
Secondary immune response-
Stimulated by a second exposure to the same antigen
More rapid and more intense than the primary response
Compare active and passive immunity with examples.
Active immunity occurs following exposure to antigen either artificially (vaccination) or naturally (sickness).
Passive immunity is the receipt of antibodies rather than the body actually making them;
it may be either natural (baby receiving colostrum from nursing) or artificial (injection of antitoxin).
Graft rejection
Graft rejection is a result of the tissues and organs of the donor having different MHC antigens than the donee.
How does the body ward off cancer?
NK cells and cytotoxic cells produce interferons, interleukins, and TNF to ward off cancer.
AIDS risk factors
Risk factors include unprotected promiscuous sex regardless of whether it is homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual and IV drug use.
Is a vaccine possible for AIDS?
A vaccine is nearly impossible since the virus encloses its genome into the body’s own cells and is difficult for the immune system to detect it .
Tumor necrosis factors (TNFs)
Kill tumor cells and stimulate immune cells to initiate an inflammatory response
Cytokines
Signaling proteins that regulate interactions between cells. (Cytokines- cyborg and signals)
Interferons
Inhibit viral replication and activate natural killer cells
Interleukins
Secreted by macrophages & lymphocytes (regulate interactions between lymphocytes)
Cause fever & have other widespread effects
Chemokines
Attract, activate, and direct the movement of certain cells of the immune system. Chemokines (Chemo-chemical Kin-family/closeness) attract by chemicals and family activates and directs them
The two types of non-specific immunity involving Cells
Phagocytes destroy bacteria
Neutrophils
Macrophages
Natural killer cells (NK cells)
Destroy cells infected with viruses
Destroy foreign or altered cells such as tumor cells
The two types of
Vertebrate specific defense
Antibody-mediated (also called humoral)
B-cells secrete antibodies
Cell-mediated
T-cells become Killer Ts and control B-cells
Steps in antibody-mediated immunity
Contact with antigen by a macrophage
Phagocytosis & Fragmentation of the antigen
Antigen placed on the surface of macrophage & T-helper cell aids in presenting processed antigen to B-cell
B-cells differentiate into clone of plasma cells and memory cells
Antibodies are produced
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Retrovirus
Causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Destroys T helper cells
Severely impairs immunity
What does the lymphatic system do?
The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid to the circulatory system, it also functions in immunity and adsorption of lipids from the gastrointestinal tract.
MHC stands for
Major HistoCompatibility-antigen. In humans, the MHC is the HLA group
HLA stands for
Human Leucocyte Antigen
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of gas exchange in air with those in water.
Gills are adapted for respiration in water and require lots of energy to extract oxygen from the water;
Trachea and lungs are adapted for terrestrial respiration but gas exchange must take place across a moist surface to prevent water loss in terrestrial organisms.
Describe the function of respiratory pigments.
Hemoglobin in vertebrate blood greatly increases the amount of oxygen which can be transported by the blood. It does this because of an iron-porphyrin (heme) bound to a protein (globin). The iron portion has a high affinity for oxygen.
Hemocyanins are copper-containing respiratory pigments in some mollusks and arthropods where the Cu acts to scavenge oxygen rather than Fe.
Describe the following adaptations for gas exchange:
body surface;
tracheal tubes;
gills;
lungs.
Body surfaces may be adapted for gas exchange where the surface to volume ratio is high (e.g. annelids, and amphibians.
Tracheal tubes of arthropods deliver air directly to the cells where the branching is extensive throughout the body.
Gills are evaginations (outfoldings) of the body surface; dermal gills occur in echinoderms, mollusk gills are highly folded and ciliated for filter feeding; chordate gills (e.g. fish) are internal and covered with a bony operculum.
Lungs are invaginations from the body surfaces that exchange gases. Many amphibians rely on both cutaneous respiration and lungs; reptilian lungs are simple with some inner folds; birds have air sacs which increase respiratory efficiency with a countercurrent flow between the air and the blood and they have no diaphraghm.
Why are fish gills efficient?
Fish gills are efficient because of the countercurrent flow of blood and water which maximizes diffusion of O2 into blood and CO2 out of blood.
Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and in the tissues.
O2 and CO2 move by diffusion from high to low concentrations.
The exchange of gases is based on Dalton’s law of partial pressures which states that the pressure of a single gas is the same regardless of whether it is alone or in combination with other gases.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of gas exchange in air with those in water.
Gills are adapted for respiration in water and require lots of energy to extract oxygen from the water; trachea and lungs are adapted for terrestrial respiration but gas exchange must take place across a moist surface to prevent water loss in terrestrial organisms.
Describe the following adaptations for gas exchange: body surface; tracheal tubes; gills; lungs.
Respiratory structures must be highly vascularized and have thin walls to allow for gases to exchange between the blood and the atmosphere.
Body surfaces may be adapted for gas exchange where the surface to volume ratio is high (e.g. annelids, shell-mollusks like nudibranchs, and amphibians.
Tracheal tubes of arthropods deliver air directly to the cells where the branching is extensive throughout the body.
Gills are evaginations (outfoldings) of the body surface; dermal gills occur in echinoderms, mollusk gills are highly folded and ciliated for filter feeding; chordate gills (e.g. fish) are internal and covered with a bony operculum. Fish gills are efficient because of the countercurrent flow of blood and water.
Lungs are invaginations from the body surfaces that exchange gases. Many amphibians rely on both cutaneous respiration and lungs; reptilian lungs are simple with some inner folds; birds have air sacs which increase respiratory efficiency with a countercurrent flow between the air and the blood and they have no diaphraghm; mammal lungs are complex and have a great surface area.
Describe the function of respiratory pigments
Hemoglobin in vertebrate blood greatly increases the amount of oxygen which can be transported by the blood. It does this because of an iron-porphyrin (heme) bound to a protein (globin). The iron portion has a high affinity for oxygen. Hemocyanins are copper-containing respiratory pigments in some mollusks and arthropods where the Cu acts to scavenge oxygen rather than Fe.
Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and in the tissues.
The exchange of gases is based on Dalton’s law of partial pressures and Fick’s law. O2 and CO2 are diffused from high to low concentrations.
What is Dalton’s law of partial pressures?
States that the pressure of a single gas is the same regardless of whether it is alone or in combination with other gases.
What is Fick’s law?
The NET DIFFUSION RATE of a gas across a fluid membrane is proportional to
the difference in partial pressure, proportional to
the area of the membrane and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane.
Explain the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport and identify factors that determine and influence the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Oxygen is actually transported not as a gas dissolved in the blood but as a compound bound to hemoglobin (Hb) to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2). As oxygen concentrations rise, the concentration of HbO2 increases. It dissociates more readily in the slightly acidic environment of the capillaries due to CO2 or in active muscles due to lactic acid; this is called the Bohr effect.
Outline the mechanisms by which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.
Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions (7% dissolved in blood and 20% carried by Hb). CO2 combines with water in the blood to form carbonic acid which dissociates to form bicarbonate ions in the blood.
Describe the defense mechanisms that protect the lungs, and the effects on the respiratory system of breathing polluted air.
Bronchial constriction is a normal reaction against inhaling particles to exclude particles from the bronchioles and alveoli which have no mucous or cilia to remove them.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease includes bronchitis and emphysema that causes bronchial constrictions and is due to breathing polluted air and/or smoking.
Compare food processing (ingestion, digesting, absorption, elimination) in an animal that has a single-opening (e.g. Hydra) with one with two openings (e.g. vertebrates).
Food processing in Hydra is a simple ingestion by a gastrovascular cavity with enzymes that digest the food and cells that absorb it; egestion of undigested materials is back through the mouth. In vertebrates, a digestive tube with specialized structures exists where the mouth ingests the food, goes to the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine (where it is absorbed), and to the anus (for elimination); vertebrates also have accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, pancreas) that secrete various enzymes into the digestive tract.
Identify each of the structures of the human digestive system on a diagram or model; know their functions. Summarize the functions of the accessory digestive glands of humans and other terrestrial vertebrates. See figure 47-4 and know it.
The mouth begins the food processing with incisors for biting, canines for tearing and premolars and molars for grinding; saliva is produced by three pairs of salivary glands to moisten and begin enzymatic digestion of starches. The pharynx and esophagus conduct food to the stomach; when a bolus is swallowed, the epiglottis covers the opening to the airway and peristalsis moves the bolus to the stomach. Food is mechanically and enzymatically digested in the stomach where parietal cells secrete HCl and “intrinsic factor” to absorb vitamin B; chief cells produce pepsinogen which gets changed to pepsin in the presence of the acid and is responsible for initiation of protein digestion. After partial digestion in the stomach the contents are called chyme which moves through the pyloric sphincter to the small intestine where most enzymatic digestion takes place. In the duodenum of the small intestine, bile from the liver and enzymes from the pancreas empty via ducts. The villi and microvilli of the small intestine absorb the digested food. The liver secretes bile where it is stored in the gall bladder and then used to emulsify fats; the liver also converts glucose to glycogen for storage, converts amino acids to fatty acids and urea, stores iron and fat-soluble vitamins, detoxifies alcohol and drugs. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin (proteases); lipases to degrade fats; amylase to degrade carbohydrates; ribonucleases and deoxyribonucleases to split RNA and DNA to free nucleotides. The chyme is digested mainly in the duodenum of the small intestine and then moves on to the jejunum where villi and microvilli absorb nutrients; then on to the ileum. From there, it enters the cecum of the large intestine where the appendix is located (on the right) on to the ascending transverse and descending colon to the sigmoid colon, rectum and anus. The large intestine functions mainly to remove water from the chyme.
Trace the pathway of an ingested meal in the human digestive system
Word bank:
(Anus, mouth, stomach, pharynx, stomach, esophagus, small intestine, large intestine)
mouth to pharynx to esophagus to stomach to small intestine to large intestine to anus.
Where are red blood cells produced
Red bone marrow
How long do RBCs last?
120 Days
Chambers in the heart that pump blood into arteries are called…
ventricles
In a normal individual the white blood cells present in the lowest number are…
basophils
Hemocyanin (more than one answer)
a. contains copper
b. is found in earthworms
c. contains iron
d. circulated oxygen in flatworms
e. transports oxygen in arthropods
A and E
The blood-filled cavity of an open circulatory system is called the
a. lymphocoel
b. hemocoel
c. atracoel
d. sinus
e. ostium
B
Ventricles receive stimuli for contraction directly from the…
Purkinje fibers
Parasympathetic neurons affect heart rate by (more than one answer)
a. opening calcium channels
b. activating a G protein
c. by activating a protein kinase
d. releasing norepinephrine
e. opening potassium channels
B and E
In a normal individual the greatest number of white blood cells are…
neutophils
Serum lacks…
clotting proteins
Plasma consists of about __ % water and ___ % proteins.
92% water and 7% proteins
A heart murmur may result when… (more than one answer)
a. individuals contract rheumatic fever
b. systole is too high
c. a semilunar valve is injured
d. diastole is too low
e. diastole is either too low or too high
A and C
Osmoregulation
The active regulation of osmotic pressure of body fluids so that homeostasis is maintained
Excretory systems
Help maintain homeostasis by regulating the concentration of body fluids
Outer portion of a kidney is called the…
renal cortex
Inner portion of a kidney is called the…
renal medulla
What does insulin do?
lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood
What does glucagon do?
raises the concentration of glucose in the blood. Malfunctions result in diabetes or hypoglycemia.
Imprinting is…
Learning that occurs during a critical period such as a chick recognizing its mother shortly after hatching so that the chick can survive.
The loop of Henle… (more than one answer)
a. is permeable to water in the ascending limb.
b. is a countercurrent mechanism.
c. is specialized to maintain a high interstitial sodium chloride concentration.
d. is permeable to salt in the descending limb.
e. connects to the collecting duct.
B and C
Urine enters the renal pelvis from the
a. papillae.
b. cortex.
c. medullary duct.
d. collecting duct.
e. renal tubules.
A
Most amphibians (more than one answer)
a. produce a dilute urine.
b. are semi-aquatic.
c. excrete urea.
d. have osmoregulatory systems similar to mammals.
e. produce a concentrated urine to conserve water.
A B and C
Ammonia is produced in… (more than one answer)
a. reptiles.
b. fish.
c. birds.
d. amphibians.
e. mammals.
A, B, C, D, E
Excretory systems…(more than one answer)
a. maintain homeostasis.
b. are found in all animals.
c. help to avoid dehydration.
d. selectively adjust the amount of salt and water.
e. evolved first in amphibians.
A, C, and D
Urea is synthesized in the liver from
a. uric acid and ammonia.
b. uric acid and oxygen.
c. ammonia and nitrogen.
d. ammonia and carbon dioxide.
e. ammonia and oxygen.
D
The nitrogenous waste requiring the largest amount of water for adequate excretion is
a. urea.
b. uric acid.
c. an amino acid.
d. uracil.
e. ammonia.
E
The type(s) of excretory organ(s) found in animals that collect wastes through flame cells is/are… (more than one answer)
a. protonephridia.
b. metanephridia.
c. open to the outside through pores.
d. green glands.
e. Malpighian tubules.
A and C
The principal nitrogenous waste product(s) in human urine is/are
a. uric acid.
b. NH3.
c. NH4.
d. ammonia.
e. urea.
E
The principal form(s) of nitrogenous waste products in various animal groups include(s)… (more than one answer)
a. uric acid.
b. carbon dioxide.
c. oxalic acid.
d. ammonia.
e. urea.
A, D, E.
The group(s) of animals that has/have no specialized excretory systems include…(more than one answer)
a. insects.
b. cnidarians.
c. annelids.
d. sponges.
e. sharks and rays.
B and D
Relative to fresh water, fluids in the bodies of aquatic organisms…(more than one answer)
a. are isotonic.
b. are hypotonic.
c. are hypertonic.
d. lose water.
e. gain water.
C and E
The duct in humans that leads from the urinary bladder to the outside is the…(more than one answer)
a. ureter.
b. loop of Henle.
c. proximal convoluted tubule.
d. urethra.
e. collecting duct.
A and C
In the kidney, most reabsorption of filtrate takes place in the
a. ureter
b. loop of Henle
c. proximal convoluted tubules
d. urethra
e. collecting duct
C
The principal functional unit(s) in the vertebrate kidneys is/are
a. nephridia
b. nephrons
c. Bowman’s capsules
d. antennal glands
e. Malpighian tubules
B
How do O2 and CO2 move and from what concentrations?
O2 and CO2 move by diffusion from high to low concentrations.
Step-by-step digestion of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid.
Enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates to monosaccharides begins with addition of amylase from SALIVA.
Proteins are digested to amino acids by trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, carboxypeptidase and dipeptidases from the PANCREAS.
Fats are degraded to fatty acids and monoacylglycerols by PANCREATIC LIPASES after the fat is emulsified by the BILE from the GALL BLADDER.
How does ADH work?
Urine volume is regulated by the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) which is produced by the posterior pituitary and targets the collecting ducts to
make them more permeable to water resulting in concentrated urine. Secretion of ADH comes under the control of the hypothalamus which has receptors that are stimulated by osmotic changes in the blood; Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption.
Nocturnal
Animals are active at night
Crepuscular
Animals are those that are active primarily during twilight
Diurnal
Animals active during the day
Where is insulin produced?
Insulin is produced in the pancreas. To be more specific, it’s produced by the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Sociobiology
The scientific study of the biological (especially ecological and evolutionary) aspects of social behavior in animals
Ethology
The scientific study of animal behavior.
Do dominance hierarchies increase or reduce aggressive behavior?
Reduce
