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POL4 > Syria and Iraq > Flashcards

Syria and Iraq Flashcards

1
Q

What did European colonialism not represent according to Daniel Neep?

A

A radical rupture in the means by which the region was governed.

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2
Q

Who had ruled over the area we now know as Syria in the nineteenth century?

A

The Ottomans

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3
Q

What had the Ottomans done during the nineteenth century?

A

Reformed state structures

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4
Q

What had the Ottoman reforms aimed to do?

A
  • Enhance institutional efficiency
  • Enhance bureaucratic rationality
  • Enhance state autonomy
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5
Q

What was the name of the area of the Middle East where Syria now resides?

A

The Levant

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6
Q

What is the significance of the Ottoman reforms?

A

Typically modern governmental forms preceded direct European rule in the Levant.

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7
Q

How does Daniel Neep describe Ottoman governance despite their reforms?

A

“sporadic and discontinuous”

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8
Q

What prompted the intensification and centralisation of state power in the Levant?

A

The end of the First World War and the Mandatory State system.

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9
Q

How was British and Frence control extended into the Levant?

A

Through the Mandate system of the League of Nations.

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10
Q

What was the Mandate system intended to do in the Levant?

A

Transform indigenous society to modernise it and would last until the populations of the Levant could govern themselves.

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11
Q

What did the end of the First World War herald?

A

A new era of international history.

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12
Q

What was the horrific and mechanised slaughter of WW1 blamed on?

A

The structure of international politics during the nineteenth century, where great powers had struggled for military, economic, and territorial supremacy.

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13
Q

How does Daniel Neep describe the post-WW1 thinking about what led to the Great War?

A

“This unrestrained clash of sovereign wills was blamed for bringing civilisation to the brink of destruction.”

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14
Q

What was the League of Nations meant to do?

A

Transform unruly states and the international system as a whole in order to prevent a repreat of such a devastating war.

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15
Q

How did General Smuts of South Africe describe the rationale behind the Mandate system?

A

As great-power tutelage of those
‘incapable of or deficient in the power of self-government’ who required
‘nursing towards political and economic independence’.

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16
Q

How does Daniel Neep describe the Mandate system?

A

A tool for engineering global peace but also for refashioning old colonial possessions into new polities alligned to Wilsonian international liberalism.

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17
Q

What did Point 5 of Wilson’s 14 points call for?

A

“A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims… the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight”

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18
Q

What did point 14 call for?

A

“A general association of nations…guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.”

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19
Q

How did Article 22 of the League of Nations describe the mandate system?

A

“a sacred trust of civilization”

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20
Q

What did the categories of A, B, and C represent under the madate system?

A

The level of advancement of each territory, A being the most advanced.

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21
Q

Which category did Syria fall into?

A

A, the most advanced

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22
Q

When did the British Colonial Office take over responsibiloty for Iraq?

A

February 1921

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23
Q

How does Daniel Neep describe French colonial policy in Mandate Syria compared to Britains mandates?

A

It was much more interventionist and therefore less ‘Wilsonian’.

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24
Q

Why did France take a much more interventionist approach to their mandates?

A

The role it saw itself performing as religious
protector of Catholics in the Middle East - “Levantine society was thought to be so fragmented that social peace could be guaranteed only by an external protector who stood above the petty squabbles of local communities.”

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25
Q

What was the French attitude towards their colonial rule in the Levant?

A

They thought it was in the objective interest of the peoples of the region, even if their uncivilised state meant they could not recognise this truth for themselves.

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26
Q

Other than social, what other interest did France have in the Levant?

A

Economic - they were a leading investor in the Ottoman Empire prior to the Great War and had a majority state in the Ottoman Public Debt.

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27
Q

What are all states according to Daniel Neep?

A

Artificial constructs that are imposed on populations; products of political struggles for control and particular dynamics of power.

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28
Q

How was the state viewed by Ottoman reformers and proponents of the Mandate system?

A

As a means to trans form society.

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29
Q

What were the Ottoman reforms modelled on?

A

Techniques of government from the world’s leading powers, most notably France, Britain and Prussia.

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30
Q

Did the Ottomans consider themselves to be mimicking European civilisation by implementing reforms pioneered in those countries?

A

No. They were implementing a process of modernisation which all civilised peoples were undergoing. So the reforms were civilised, not European. Europeans had simply done it first.

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31
Q

What did the French do with their mandate due to the variety of identities in the territory?

A

They divided the territories under its Mandate into a patchwork of independent mini-states and special administrative units with autonomous or semi-autonomous status.

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32
Q

How were the borders of the mini states and special administrative units under French control drawn?

A

In line with what the French percieved to be the ‘natural’ religio-ethnic communities of Syria.

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33
Q

How did France go about ruling their new Mandatory territories and where were these practices developed?

A

They ruled Syria using the same techniques that had been used in Morocco since they took control in 1912. It relied heavily on ethnography and an intimate knowledge of local customs and culture.

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34
Q

By what means was French rule based on ethnography exercised?

A

The Levant’s Service des Renseignements
(SR), founded in 1921.

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35
Q

What were Service des Renseignements Officers tasked with doing?

A

Gathering military and political intelligence, and also detailed knowledge of Syrian society, from topography and economy to local customs, genealogies and histories.

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36
Q

What was the role of SR officers meant to be?

A

Advisory, passing on information to military officials.

37
Q

What was the role of SR officers in practice?

A

They often sought to govern directly themselves.

38
Q

How does Daniel Neep describe French colonial rule in Syria on account of the influence of SR officers?

A

Improvised and personalised leading to a profound unevenness at the very heart of colonial government.

39
Q

What is the full name of SR officers?

A

Service des Renseignements Officers

40
Q

When did the Great Syrian Revolt begin?

A

July 1925

41
Q

What sparked the Great Syrian Revolt?

A

The particularly invasive and brutal regime of the local colonial governor, Capitaine Gabriel Carbillet.

42
Q

What is the capital of Syria?

A

Damascus

43
Q

How did the French respond when it looked like Syrian rebels were going to capture the capital in 1925?

A

The French military ordered the aerial and artillery bombardment of the city for three whole days: hundreds were killed and entire quarters of the city were levelled.

44
Q

When was the Great Syrian Revolt defeated?

A

1927

45
Q

What did the French see as the utility of colonial violence according to Daniel Neep?

A

“violence could serve as a delivery mechanism to implant the seeds of modernity within primitive societies: violence and civilisation went hand in hand”

46
Q

Who were the Troupes du Levant?

A

The French army in the Levant that enforced French colonial rule.

47
Q

What developed in Syria as a result of the instability of French colonial rule according to Elizabeth Thompson?

A

Formal groups, associations, and movements that sought to challenge the status quo and asserting the rights and interests of specific identites and social groups.

48
Q

What did the inequality of social order coupled with promises of equality lead to in 1920s Syria according the Elizabeth Thompson?

A

Challenges to the colonial civic order.

49
Q

What does subaltern mean?

A

Colonial populations who are socially, politically, and geographically excluded from the hierarchy of power.

50
Q

What 3 subaltern movements does Elizabeth Thompson identify in Syria under French colonial rule?

A
  • Women
  • Workers
  • Non-elite Muslims
51
Q

What was the difference between groups under Ottoman and French rule according to Thompson?

A

Under Ottoman rule groups tended to be informal gatherings of friends, whereas mandate-era groups became increasingly formalized.

52
Q

What did groups seek to challenge in Ottoman and French eras respectively?

A

In the Ottoman era they sought reform within the existing norms of the state, but under French mandate era they challenge the existing practices and represented the identities of specific groups.

53
Q

What did the Great Syrian Revolt inspire in Damascus amongst women’s groups?

A
  • Handicraft workshops training widowed rural women
  • Hospital visits
  • Monthly cultural lectures
  • Schooling for poor and orphaned girls
54
Q

What was the only respectable profession for elite women?

A

Teaching

55
Q

What did women’s groups do to counteract the inflence of French colonial rule in state education?

A

Many women’s leaders ran Arabist schools, to counter the French influence in state and missionary schools.

56
Q

How does Elizabeth Thompson characterise the change women’s groups underwent during French mandate rule?

A

They began to emphasize their identity as women and their right to full participation in the civic order.

57
Q

How does Elizabeth Thompson see women’s professions changing under French rule?

A

Their work as educators, philanthropists and writers was no longer simply an expression of social concern. They were the means through which they asserted their place in national affairs.

58
Q

How many women’s groups were there by 1930?

A

40

59
Q

How many full-time members did the women’s groups in Syria have?

A

500-1000

60
Q

What does Elizabeth Thompson see as a limit to the representation and effectiveness of women’s groups under French colonial rule?

A

They were still limited and restricted by social class, inhospitable to women from modest backgrounds who might have otherwise been free to join. Most women’s groups operated much like elite ladies’ clubs.

61
Q

What did the narrow social base of membership mean for women’s groups according to Thompson?

A

Custom and class conspired against consciousness and unity when attempts were made to form a mass movement.

62
Q

How many workers’ srtike were there between 1926 and 1929?

A

47

63
Q

What similarity does Elizabeth Thompson see between women’s and labour groups under French rule?

A

Despite latent class tensions between bourgeois women and labor, they both held the belief that equality would come only through the expansion of social rights, meaning state intervention in social affairs.

64
Q

What was the objective of Islamic populist movements under French rule?

A

To defend what they saw as inviolable Islamic tradition and preserve the paternalism of the state.

65
Q

How did Islamic populist groups’ vision of the state differ to those of women’s and labour groups?

A

They envisaged the state as a religious institution privileging Muslim interests, whereas women and workers wanted a state that was a secular guarantor of equality and welfare.

66
Q

How do we know that the French were trying to alter Syrian and Islamic traditions and norms?

A

Commissioner Damien de Martel, in a memo to Paris, concluded that the road was still long “to leading numerous elements of the Levantine population to more modern views.”

67
Q

What was the impact of subaltern groups representing gender, class, and religion by the mid-1930s in Syria?

A

The subalterns had not, by the mid-1930s, structurally altered the unlevel playing field of the civic order, but they had made their silenced voices heard.

68
Q

Where did labour and women’s groups diverge according to Thompson?

A

Labor unions remained blind to the plight of unorganized women workers.

69
Q

What was the similarity between Islamic and women’s groups?

A

They both identified education and the influence of the French as a threat to tradition.

70
Q

Where did Islamic and women’s groups diverge?

A

Women’s groups sought to reform religious laws that excluded them from civil society where Islamic groups sought to strengthen them.

71
Q

What strenghtened the labour and religious movements and weakened the women’s?

A

Gender, with workers and Islamic populists enjoying full legal standing becuase they were male, whereas women were deprived of the right to vote and bound by religious law to obey their husbands and fathers. In short, they did not enjoy the civil autonomy that men did.

72
Q

At what times did the impact of gender limit the implact of women’s groups compared with labour and Islamic groups the most?

A

At election times since they were unable to plead their case.

73
Q

Quote by Toby Dodge about what Britain did between 1914 and 1932?

A

“Between 1914 and 1932, the British government created the modern state of Iraq.”

74
Q

What did Woodrow Wilson try to do after WW1 according to Toby Dodge?

A

Rework the Westphalian system on a global, extra-European basis.

75
Q

How was the reworking of the Westphalia system intended to be done according to Toby Dodge?

A

Through the Mandate system.

76
Q

What was the Mandate system inteded to do?

A

“establish the universal ideal of the sovereign state, with comparatively open markets and politically independent government.”

77
Q

What did the creation of the Iraqi state signal according to Toby Dodge?

A

“a break with traditional territorial imperialism and signaled the beginning of the end of British international dominance”

78
Q

When did Britain gain Iraq as a Mandate from the League of Nations?

A

1920

79
Q

How did British officials in Iraq approach understanding society according to Toby Dodge?

A

In ways familiar to them and in large part from their own understandings of the evolution of British society.

80
Q

How was Britain’s colonial policy in Iraq different from its former imperial empire according to Toby Dodge?

A

It slowly became apparent to British officials that the Iraqi state was to be run by and for Iraqis.

81
Q

What were the British not doing in Iraq according to Toby Dodge?

A

Creating an ‘informal empire’ in the Middle East, as some scholars have argued. The British in Iraq were very aware of the temporary nature of their tutelage.

82
Q

What was the creation of the Mandate system symbolic of according to Toby Dodge?

A

One of the most public expressions of the end of Britain’s predominant role in the world.

83
Q

Along with British/European imperialism, what ideas did the Mandate system mark the end of according to Toby Dodge?

A

Notions of cultural and racial superiority.

84
Q

What had the British intended to do to Basra since the beginning of the war?

A

Annex Basra due to its strategic and economic importance to Britain.

85
Q

How does Toby Dodge describe British attitude towards Iraq between 1923 and 1927?

A

Advisory

86
Q

How did British attitudes to Iraq change by 1927, and what did they change to according to Toby Dodge?

A

“The idea of creating a legitimate, stable state with the ability to rule efficiently over its population was dropped altogether. Britain’s primary policy goal from 1927 onward was to unburden itself of its international responsibilities towards Iraq as quickly as possible.”

87
Q

What sort of state did the British end up creating in Iraq?

A

A quasi-state

88
Q

How does Toby Dodge describe the quasi-state Britian created in Iraq?

A

As one which bore the appearance of a national polity but whose institutions were in fact a facade built in order to allow Britain to disengage.

POL4 (3 decks)

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