Syntax

Question 1

What is a Theta-role? What are some examples of Theta-roles?

Answer 1

A Theta-role is the semantic role of an argument (e.g. agent, theme/patient, experiencer, locative, recipient)

Question 2

What are benefits of the X” theory?

Answer 2

1. An explanation of syntax with a reduced number of rules.
2. All phrases have the same basic structure.
3. Allows for the study of universal structures.
4. Better understanding of relationships between constituents in a sentence.

Question 3

How are Theta-roles determined?

Answer 3

The theta-role of an argument is determined by its relationship to different subcategorizing heads within the sentence. Certain heads require certain theta roles to be assigned, and this information is contained within the lexicon (e.g. “ver” requires an agent/experiencer and patient).

Question 4

What is the “theta criterion”?

Answer 4

Every argument in a sentence must have a Theta-role, and every required Theta-role must be assigned to an argument.

Question 5

What types of heads can assign Theta-roles?

Answer 5

Any lexical head (verb, preposition, etc.) can assign a Theta-role. Functional heads (e.g. determiners, quantifiers) cannot.

Question 6

What Theta-roles are required by the verbs dar, ver, and poner?

Answer 6

Dar: Agent, patient/theme, recipient
Ver: Experiencer, patient/theme
Poner: Agent, patient/theme, locative

Question 7

What are the tests for constituency?

Answer 7

Coordination, deletion, movement, substitution, isolation

Question 8

How does the coordination test work?

Answer 8

You can join the unit with other units using a conjunction (e.g. y, o, ni…, Era alto y gordo y fuerte y feo y…)

Question 9

How does the substitution test work?

Answer 9

The unit can be substituted by a pronoun or clitic, etc. (e.g. Vi el libro = Lo vi).

Question 10

How does the movement test work?

Answer 10

The unit can be moved to another position (e.g. Me dio un libro = Un libro me dio).

Question 11

How does the isolation test work?

Answer 11

The unit can stand on its own, as in answer to a question (e.g. ¿Qué te dio? Un libro.)

Question 12

How does the deletion test work?

Answer 12

The unit can be deleted from the sentence.

Question 13

What are five supporting arguments for the innateness theory?

Answer 13

1. Universality of language: Languages share deep, structural traits.
2. Language learning: Children go through the same steps at about the same rate regardless of the language they are learning.
3. Critical-period theory: It appears that after a certain age (around puberty) it appears extremely difficult to acquire native-like proficiency in a second language, or to acquire a first language at all.
4. Pidgins and Creoles: The rapid jump in complexity from a pidgin to a creole language appears to indicate that there are pre-programmed structures in the human brain.
5. Poverty of stimulus: The idea that children don’t receive enough input (i.e., hear enough language) to learn as fast and proficiently as they do.

Question 14

Describe how generative theory works.

Answer 14

1. Every person born with innate language ability preprogrammed into brain (i.e. Universal Grammar). The “switches” on the “motherboard” are set through exposure to input.
2. Language is a separate, independent ability. It has its own module in the brain and is not related to other cognitive abilities.
3. Language is seen as primarily a mental phenomenon. The focus is on speaker competence (competence leads to performance).
4. Brain storage capacity is limited. There is a small lexicon and a complex set of rules that turn the small, stripped-down lexicon into surface structures.
5. Language structure is independent of meaning.
6. Much research is based off of intuition and the notion of the “ideal native speaker”.
7. Explains productivity (creativity) through rules

Question 15

Describe how functionalist theory works.

Answer 15

1. Would probably agree that humans have innate language capabilities, but focus on mental and physical capacities. There is no UG.
2. Language is interconnected with other cognitive abilities and resembles them.
3. Language is a social phenomenon. Performance leads to competence.
4. Brain storage space is basically unlimited. According to Bybee, everything an individual hears and produces is stored in its entirety (not stripped down). The lexicon is massive and complex, but accessing it is simple.
5. Language structure is intimately tied to meaning.
6. Connect with research in psychology, neuroscience, etc. Research based on empirical data and experiments.
7. Explains productivity (creativity) through analogy

Question 16

Give a basic outline of the two theories dealing with clitic movement.

Answer 16

1. Movement theory: In this theory, clitics are generated as complements of their verbs (i.e. they appear first in the DO slot). They then can move as needed.
2. Base-generated theory: In this theory, clitics are stored with their verbs in the lexicon.

Question 17

Critique each of the theories dealing with clitic movement.

Answer 17

1. Movement theory: Deals well with clitic climbing (e.g. Marcos lo quiere robar), but not with clitic doubling (e.g. Marcos se ve a sí mismo) nor with clitics that don’t alternate with full phrases (e.g. Marcos se comió una hamburguesa).
2. Base-generated: Deals well with clitic doubling (e.g. Marcos se ve a sí mismo) and clitics that don’t alternate will full phrases, but not with clitic climbing (e.g. Marcos lo quiere robar).
3. Functionalist theory might be the best way to approach this issue.

Question 18

What are some of the different theories that have been proposed to explain sentences like “¿Qué José dijo?”

Answer 18

1. English influence: Similar structure in English, but other areas with high English contact don’t do it, and historical documents show the presence of that structure prior to English influence.
2. African influence: Supposedly originating from similar structures in African languages brought by the slaves. Interesting that similar phenomenon happens in Brazilian Portuguese. Other areas with African influence don’t appear to show the same trait.
3. Functional purpose: The element keeps its preverbal position in order to deal with clarity issues generated by /-s/ aspiration. Seems unlikely because of the redundancy of Spanish, changes in vowel quality, lack of explanation for preverbal vs. postverbal position, and the fact that /-s/ aspiration is common throughout many regions.
4. Cliticization: The element becomes cliticized (loses its stress). Doesn’t appear to be the case.
5. It would be important to remember that in areas where this occurs, maintenance of subject pronouns is common, as is also the use of subjects before infinitives (e.g. …para yo comprarlo), both of which may have some influence on the phenomenon in question.

Question 19

What is the relationship between abstract case and the movement of D” in passive sentences with “ser”?

Answer 19

In these types of sentences, the D” has to move in order to be assigned case. It cannot receive case in its position as complement to the participle, which functions as an adjective and therefore can’t assign case.

Question 20

What is case? What is abstract case? What is morphological case?

Answer 20

1. Case: grammatical function of D” (e.g. direct object, indirect object, object of preposition, etc.)
2. Abstract case: System possessed by all languages that indicates the case of a given element.
3. Morphological case: Only occurs when the case of an element is morphologically marked.

Question 21

Critiques of UG

Answer 21

(Pinker)

1. Principles that are specific to language itself (and that are not just general ways in which the mind works) have not been identified.
2. Only a small portion of the world’s languages have been studied.
3. Other learning models (neural networks) may be more adequate.