Applied Linguistics

Question 1

Prepositions and conjunctions as relators. Por v. Para.

Answer 1

yeah

Question 2

Ser v. Estar

Answer 2

1. The distinction can be confusing for L2 speakers coming from languages that don’t make the same distinction. According to Whitley, there are two main theoretical camps (dealing with ser/estar + attribute).
2. Traditional (RAE):
   2a. Ser = permanent, inherent, Estar = temporary, condition
   2b. Exceptions: memorizable combinations (e.g. ser + nationality, estar + location) and adjectives that “change meaning” (e.g. ser/estar verde).
   2c. Problems: (1) can’t define what is inherent v. a condition, (2) Verb selection cued by noun, (3) Easily contradicted.
3. Newer (Bull, Nava Ruiz):
   3a. Ser = norm, Estar = deviation from norm (all subjective judgments, norms can change). A problem is that estar can also be used for seemingly normal states (e.g. la nieve allí siempre está blanquísima, Las camas siempre están limpias)
   3b. Ser = atemporal, Estar = temporal (Nava Ruiz). There is a lot of subjectivity. When someone says “La nieve es blanca” it’s not that it can’t be dirty, just that in that moment he is subjectively viewing whiteness as an atemporal train

Question 3

Preterite v. Imperfect

Answer 3

1. Can be difficult to understand because English doesn’t make the same distinctions in the same way and because many popular explanations are inadequate (e.g. imperfect describes a mental/emotional state in past and gives background info, preterite records and reports and causes change in meaning with certain verbs).
2. The real difference between the two is not one of tense but one of aspect (i.e. how the speaker subjectively views the event and the inherent nature of the event). There are two categories of aspect that need to be discussed: grammatical and lexical.
3. Grammatical aspect: How the speaker views the event, where the focus is. The preterite corresponds to the perfective aspect (i.e. refers to beginning, end, or both) and the imperfect corresponds to the imperfective aspect (i.e. refers to the middle of the event).
4. Lexical aspect: The inherent nature of the event. There are four categories: (1) State: an event that can extend indefinitely (tener, querer), (2) Activity: requires energy and has an arbitrary beginning and end point (correr, pintar) (3) Telic event: concrete end point (correr una milla, pintar un cuadro), and (4) Punctual event: has a concrete end point but no duration (darse cuenta, encontrar, reconocer a alguien).
5. Differentiating between the two is important. When taking into account the lexical aspect of the verb, it becomes clear that the imperfect can refer to a beginning point (e.g. Comenzaba a llover…) or and end point (e.g. Terminaba de llover…); however, when taking into account the grammatical aspect it will be clear that even though the event may be iniciative or terminative, the imperfect refers to the middle of the event, and not the beginning or the end of the event.

Question 4

Verbal and nonverbal uses of infinitive, gerund, and participle

Answer 4

1. These three categories are known as non-finite forms, because they carry no marking for time and mood. Their verbal and nonverbal uses are as follows:
2. Gerund: (forms ending in -ndo)
   - Verbal uses: with “estar” forms the progressive tenses, can be an “absolute” (i.e. provides background information, “Rompiendo la ventana, logra entrarse”)
   - Nonverbal uses: has adverbial function (NOT adjectival, except in areas with English influence, e.g. Puerto Rico)
3. Participle: (forms ending in -do, some exceptions)
   - Verbal uses: with “haber” forms the perfect tenses, can be an absolute (e.g. Llegado el dichoso momento…), with “ser” forms the passive voice (e.g. Fue comprado)
   - Nonverbal uses: Has adjectival function (e.g. El carro comprado…)
4. Infinitive: (citation form, ending in -r)
   - Verbal uses: with auxiliary verb (e.g. Puedo correr), can be used as a command (e.g. Abrir la bolsa), and with a preposition (e.g. Fuimos para comprar pan)
   - Nonverbal forms: as a noun it can be a subject or any type of object (direct, indirect, of preposition)
5. All can be lexicalized (e.g. impuesto, doctorando, deber) and therefore have nominal function