Syllabus: The Augustan Age (44 BC-AD 14) Flashcards
Impact of death of Caesar
Assassinated March 44 BC by Brutus and Cassius (supporters of republic) → granted amnesty
JC will→ adopted Oct as son and nominated as heir
O left Macedonia to Rome to claim inheritance and avenge murder
Death left power vacuum; briefly filled by MA (JC’s ‘deputy’)
Politics; Republicans (Cicero) vs JC men (MA)
“At the end of the will, too, he adopted Gaius Octavius into his family and gave him his name.”
SUETONIUS: THE TWELVE CAESARS
Early Career of Octavian
Sought vengeance as JC son
MA had spent most of JC money; O had to honour will→ sold own property to pay what JC promised; staged games (gained property)
Even with growing support; didn’t underestimate MA and Cicero
44 BC, MA consul expired and Cicero attacked him politically
MA moved north to take province; attacked when governor refused to leave
Cicero shared command with O and sent army to assist governor
O was needed as had large forces; army defeated MA and absorbed armies into own
Cicero demanded O hand over legions; declares MA public enemy and Brutus and Cassius given control over East
Cicero underestimates Oct and O marches legions on Rome
Takes treasury to pay soldiers Cancels outlaw of MA B and C outlawed Elected himself as consul for 43 BC O meets with JC’s former leading commanders: MA and Lepidus
“Antonius had been irritated at Caesar’s favouritism towards a young relative” JONES
“At the age of 19, on my own initiative and at my own expense, I raised an army by means of which I liberated the Republic.” RES GESTAE
“Republic again was at mercy of men who commanded loyalty of the legions.” SCULLARD
2nd Triumvirate
43 BC O sanctions alliance (no civil war)
Power came from 33 legions, offices and titles
Treated West Roman empire as personal property (divided into 3)
- O→ Africa, Sicily, Sardinia
- Lep→ Narbonese Gaul, Spain
- MA→ Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul
MA strongest position; O→ africa hard to reach as seas controlled by pirates Sextus Pompeius
Aim of 2nd Triumvirate→ reconstruct state; Reality→ used powers to rid opponents and avenge JC murder
Proscription: Opponents declared outlaws; anyone could kill for reward
Over 20,000 men marked for proscription (300 senators)
“Proscriptions…brought about a reorientation of loyalties in political bodies” ECK
Civil War
42 BC: MA and O confront Brutus and Cassius in Greece→ defeated near Philippi (now 60 legions)
After Phillippi→ MA controlled East; O controlled Italy and West
MA in east→ O uses relationship with Celo for propaganda war
40 BC MA returns: Treaty of Brundisium
Lepidus retains Africa, MA retains East
O gains Gaul
Triumvirs nominate consuls several years in advance (secures positions)
MA marry Octavia (O’s sister)
Treaty of Tarentum (37 BC)
- O needed MA support to defeat Sextus Pompeius; MA needs troops for campaign
- MA to provide 120 ships, O provide 20,000 legionaries
- MA gave ships- O only sent 2,000
36 BC→ Triumvirs fleets attack SP (SP flees but executed on MA orders)
O had more soldiers than needed→ settled veterans outside of Italy
O announces end of civil wars: Lep eliminated from Triumvirate
Over next years: O strengthened Rome military, economically, socially
Secured North East frontier and cleared Adriatic sea of pirates
Secured peace in Italy→ settle veterans, provide stability, prosperity
People got cheap corn, clean water, new building programs
“With Lepidus’ resignation the triumvirate had effectively ceased to exist.” ECK
Consequences and Significance of Battle of Actium
MA and O vied for power→ After Philippi MA toured East and met Cleo
MA unsuccessful in defeating Parthians→ missed chance to outdo O
MA spends more time with Cleo→ O uses for propaganda
MA divorces O’s sister→ acknowledges Cleo’s son as son of Caesar→ implies O took power illegally
O launches attack on “unRoman” behaviour→ declares war against Cleo
End of 32→ MA bases himself in bay of Actium
Early 31→ O bases himself overlooking Actium
MA fails to lure O into battle→ gave up land when position worsened
Short supplied, troops deserted, disease spread
Agrippa had more ships; wanted them in water→ penned MA in
MA and Cleo fled to Egypt→ their fleets surrendered or destroyed
MA and Cleo commit suicide; Caesarean killed (seen as rival)
Not greatest battle but Egypt became part of empire
Major grain source; gave O access to wealth
Marked end of civil wars→ no rivals and people glad for peace; voted O honours and staged games in his honour
Great propaganda victory; O said dangers didn’t die→ he would constantly safeguard from dangers
Coins declares him champion of liberty of Roman people
“Actium could come as no surprise” AWH
Romans saw battle as; “A symbol of salvation, of the rescue of Rome from destruction” AWH
“Augustus gave the Roman world a new order.” AWH
“Century of civil wars was ended.” SCULLARD
Coin described O as ‘son of God’ printed with Liberator of people on it. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
“The myth tells us, the threat was not laid to rest with victory. It was permanent: Rome…were ever in danger, for ever in need of a saviour.” AWH
Development of the Principate
After Actium; O’s power unquestioned→ was ambitious; wouldn’t walk away from power→ knew power of legions
Conservative man; bound by duty, respected tradition→ maintain facade of republican govt (but also grant him supreme power)
Principate; In theory→ sharing power between Princeps and Senate
Reality→ Principate grew at expense of senate (evolutionary)
T. Mommsen→ Govt was sharing of power between Emperor and Senate→ dyarchy
“The dyarchy is a transparent fiction” BURY
Succession; First wanted nephew Marcus, then Agrippa, then grandsons (adopted as own sons) → Tiberius; final choice
Choosing a successor; Had begun to resemble a monarchy
Settlement of 27 BC
Egypt claimed as personal imperium; access to wealth, corn supplies
Title of Augustus (revered one)
Became Princeps→ wanted to convince people he was just first citizen
Proconsular imperium:
- For ten years→ right to appoint legates, make war, conclude treaties
- Commander in chief of legions→ control of military→ no rivals to power
Consular imperium
- Authority over Rome and Italy→ used to claim power over provincial proconsuls
- Could dictate policy to Senate and assembly in Rome
“I transferred the state from my own power to the control of the Roman senate and people.” RES GESTAE
Settlement of 23 BC
Settlement came out of concerns for senate unrest and succession
Never took dictator powers; censorial powers granted to him
Maius Imperium Proconsulare
- Aug’s proconsular imperium made superior to that of other proconsuls
Tribunicia potestas
- For life→ wide ranging powers;
- Power to legislate in assemblies, could summon Senate
- Could veto laws, propose new laws
- Protect individuals against the actions of magistrates
“After that time I excelled all in authority, but I possessed no more power than the others who were my colleagues in each magistry.” RES GESTAE
Titles, honours and images of the princeps
Never flaunted power; often turned down offices offered by Senate→ but held political, military and religious positions
Power was never in question→ emphasised titles and honours bestowed on him though
5 titles Augustus used;
Pontifex maximus, Consul, Imperator, Tribunicia potestas, Pater Patriae (Father of the country)
Knew importance of image→ majority of pop was illiterate, only small minority would ever see A→ presentation on statues,coins, monuments was important→ image provided focus for loyalty
“To break an oath by Augustus,to deface his image…was to show disrespect to his greatness.” AWH
5 titles Augustus used;
Pontifex maximus, Consul, Imperator, Tribunicia potestas, Pater Patriae (Father of the country)
Augustus: Coins
Numismatics→ Shows how A wanted to appear to people
A obtained right to making coins out of precious metals
Coin had propaganda value→ image of A and messages connected with image
27 BC: Gold coin “AEGYPT CAPTA” with crocodile→ A presented as conqueror of Egypt (and evil queen)
After Actium→ O coins declared him champion of liberty of Roman people (LIBERTATIS PR VINDEX)
Coins depicting him,titles and accomplishments→ used daily, strong propaganda→ reinforces to people how great he was
Augustus: Statue of Prima Porta
Shows A as young, strong, victorious general addressing troops (power and authority)
Veiled references to A’s divinity→ barefoot (suggest hero or divine nature)
Small cupid (son of Venus) at right foot rides dolphin (Venus’s patron animal)–> Julian family claimed to be descended from goddess Venus
Augustus: The Ara Pacis
Ara Pacis (Altar of peace)
Commissioned by Senate in 13 BC→ designed to welcome A back from Spain
Meant to symbolise peace and prosperity achieved thanks to “Augustan peace”
A depicted as priest, women and children of household follow→ family is model of virtue, morality and fertility (image complements strong morals A took in religious and moral reforms)
Has relief scenes depicting Vestal Virgins, priests and sacrificial animals
Augustus and the Senate
Many old families eliminated in proscriptions
Aug made new supporters members of senatorial class;many new families
Used census to control size of senate→ reduced numbers
Republic not restored senate not resumed traditional powers. Principate no dyarchy
Development of principate revolutionary and wanted real power; but shared burden of governing a vast empire with Senate
Aug showed Senate respect and gave members real responsibility;
Limited chances of ambitious members to oppose his rule
Use members as senatorial civil service for running vast empire
Enormous wealth; patronage; increased size of clientele
Reforms to the Senate (Augustus)
New criteria for membership of senatorial class (had to possess $1 million sesterces and only men already of senatorial class could stand for political office)
Members fined for non attendance→ wanted to make it respectful and responsible again
Roles and Responsibilities of the Senate (Augustus)
Judicial; Dealt with treason, extortion, adultery
Administrative; Aqueducts, corn supply, roads, public buildings
Legislative; Advisory board and passed resolutions
Financial; Controlled public treasury. Minted coins.
Role of Magistrates:
TRIBUNES
Could no longer propose legislation or exercise the veto→ new positions were hard to fill
Role of Magistrates:
QUAESTOR
Rank was requirment for senate entry.
6 served in provinces and others helped Aug and consuls
Role of Magistrates:
AEDILES
Lost traditional roles (corn supply management, public games, water supply, fire control)
City responsibilities were limited by appointment of prefect of city
“All they had left was the repair of the streets and a petty jurisdiction in commercial cases.” JONES
Role of Magistrates:
PRAETORS
Increased roles and numbers to 12
2 managed state treasury, 3 managed military treasury
Took over organisation of games and festivals from aediles
Role of Magistrates:
CONSULS
Consuls: Most desired position of power and authority, each year there were 2 consuls
- Represented peak of one’s public career
- Gave enormous auctoritas
- Opened possibility after the consulship of governorship of one of Rome’s provinces
Dealt with appeals from provinces
Heard requests from foreign envoys in minor matters
Ex-consuls managed administrative areas (e.g. Supervision of water and grain supplies, public works and roads)
Proconsuls governed important provinces of Asia and Africa
Role of Officials:
MILITARY TRIBUNE
Period of army service
Role of Officials:
PROCURATOR
Running business, tax collection, financial control of provinces
Role of Officials:
GOVENOR
Running of province selected by princeps
Role of Officials:
PREFECT
Control of range of prefectures responsible for areas crucial to stability of Rome:
Corn supply→ in charge of imports of grain from provinces
Fire brigade→ in charge of those who fought constant fire outbreaks
City→ in charge of maintaining public order, judging cases of lower class and freedmen citizens accused of crimes, 500-strong police force
Praetorian guard→ in charge of guardsmen activities
Imperial province of egypt→ In charge of affairs of Egypt
Equestrians (Augustus)
Keen to use talented members of equestrian order as part of new civil service
“Thus Augustus succeeded in building up an efficient body of salaried professional administrators.” SCULLARD
Enabled Aug to revive traditions of republican Roman society; Old link with military→ originally had been horse-riding knights
Equestrians given new symbols of new status: Tunic with narrow purple stripe, right to sit in the first 14 rows at the theatre, right to wear gold rings, right to sit on jury courts, a horse at public expense
Freedmen (Augustus)
Freedmen were slaves whose masters had given them freedom→ Aug wanted to maintain value of Roman citizenship by restricting their numbers
Several laws introduced to regulate manumission (freeing of slaves)
Freedmen (often intelligent, educated men) played important role in Aug’s administration→ many carried out secretarial work (already used to it as slaves)
Some freedmen attended to his private affairs, finances etc→ called procurators
Gave some significant roles but barred them from holding public office or serving in the legions
Freedom didn’t mean automatic citizen rights:
Freed slaves took the citizenship of their former master but restrictions meant they weren’t seen as full citizens
Couldn’t hold magistry, serve in legions and couldn’t intermarry with senatorial class
Had to wear a special cap which marked them as freed slaves which in turn stigmatised them socially
Freedmen could marry free born women and their children were considered as freeborn
Could become priests and later played a role in cult on Rome
“He was not, however, hostile to wealthy and public-spirited freedmen gaining some social recognition.” JONES
Augustus Political Reforms
Remodelled political system; didn’t want to appear as tyrant→ idea of dyarchy
Reorganised senatorial order; revised senatorial rolls (expelled 150 senators)
Maintain facade of republic; create principate→ strengthen institutions of republic
Restored equestrian order to links with military origins→ efficient running of empire
“Aug went out of his way to revive the traditional senate.” AWH
