Syllabus:Society in New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Amenhotep III

Question 1

NKE: Geographical Setting

Answer 1

Most prominent feature→ Nile River (flows north from central Africa to Egypt and then out to Med sea)

Mediterranean formed Northern border while Red Sea was Eastern boundary

West dessert formed natural barrier between Egypt and Libya

During floods, navigation became difficult due to rapids formed as river forced its way through region

3 seasons:
- Inundation: Akhet, Emergence: Peret, Ploughing: Shemw

Duality: East and West banks, order in religion, E.g. Osiris vs Seth. Black land vs Red land

Kemet (Black land→ Upper and Lower Egypt)

Deshret (Red land→ desert)

Question 2

NKE: Natural Features

Answer 2

“Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” HERODOTUS (Greek historian)

There would be no Egyptian civilization without river

2 distinct geographical areas:

• Lower Egypt: North. Rich lands of Nile Delta and Old Kingdom capital of Memphis
• Upper Egypt: South of memphis to southern border at Aswan. Included New kingdom capital thebes, and the Valley of the Kings

Nile was important for irrigation for crop growing, transport, water for drinking/bathing, animal husbandry, mud for brickmaking, papyrus, fishing and fowling

Fertile, surrounded by lifeless desert and chaotic foreign lands

Cataracts (natural barriers of Nile) Mediterranean Sea to the North

Question 3

NKE: Resources from Egypt

Answer 3

Wide variety of natural resources; minerals, ores, stone, rock and food

Within borders→ rich deposits of gold (mined from earliest times)

Nile→ Agriculture, water source, transport, fishing and fowling

Food→ Ducks, Cattle, hares, Fish, Oils, vegetables grown, Honey, grains produced, Figs, fruits, grapes (wine)

Papyrus

Question 4

NKE: Resources from neighbours

Answer 4

Oases to the west→ provided valuable raw materials
Timber from cedar forests of Byblos (modern Lebanon)

Crete and Aegean provided pottery, jewellery and ignite of copper

Blue semi precious lapis lazuli stone from Afghanistan

Luxury goods such as panther skin, ostrich feathers came from region of Nubia (south of Egypt) used for priests

Spices, Ivory, Ebony

Relief from Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple, showing trade expedition to Punt. “Behold the load is very heavy…ebony and pure Ivory, apes, skin of southern Panther…the like was never brought before any King

Question 5

Hymn to Harpi

Answer 5

Hapi reveals how Egyptians relied on the Nile

Hapi is the God of the Nile and sacrifices were made to him as Egyptians knew what would happen when he didn’t come

“None can live without you.”

Question 6

Significant Site: Thebes

Answer 6

East bank of the Nile where the sun rose each day was for the living (City was gods first creation)

Here was Royal palaces, temples of Gods and villages of people

West Bank, place of setting sun was for the dead

For most of NK, Thebes (Waset) was the most important centre

Duality of east and west banks→ Ma’at

Main political and religious centre→ focus of worship of state god Amun in Karnak and Luxor temple

EAST BANK
- East bank of the Nile at Thebes→ located 2 great temples of Amun (Luxor and Karnak)

WEST BANK

• Site of the pharaohs mortuary temples (especially built to maintain cult of dead pharaoh in his afterlife)
• Pharaohs tombs were close in VOK
• Short distance was Valley of Queens
• Short distance was village of Dier el- Medina (housed the workers who constructed nearby pharaohs tom

Question 7

Significant Site: Valley of the Kings

Answer 7

NK Royal necropolis (cemetery) Contained rock- cut tombs of 62 pharaohs of NK

Thutmose I is thought to have been the first pharaoh to construct a tomb for himself in VOTK

Consists of two main sections: Eastern and Western valley

Valley offered seclusion and degree of protection for funerary monuments of a dynasty devoted to Amun “the hidden one”

Symbolic appeal→ view across Nile from Thebes resembled hieroglyph Akhet meaning “horizon” (place of rising sun→ gave location a symbolic association with rebirth and renewal.)

Each morning the sun would rise over eastern cliffs (12 hours of wake and order to the waking world, in evening, Ra set towards cliffs in west)

Thutmose I→ First ordered construction of his rock-cut tomb

Question 8

Significant Site: Malkata

Answer 8

Amenhotep III built a huge palace complex on West
Bank of Thebes (for setting of King’s Sed-renewal festival)

Excavation revealed artefacts, rooms with decorated plaster floors, walls and ceilings

Many feature naturalistic scenes of plants and animals, decorative spirals

West of Thebes usually reserved for cemeteries

32 ha→ massive mud-brick and timber palace complex→ called “House of Rejoicing”

Several residential palaces for king, wives and kids
Temple to Amun

Administrative and audience rooms

Question 9

NKE: Social structure

Answer 9

1) Royalty→ Pharaoh, queen, secondary wives, royal sons and daughters, royal concubines
2) Great nobles and high officials→ Vizier, treasurer, high priest
3) Society and administration→ Town mayors, police officers, officials, army officers
4) Skilled craftsmen in temple workshops, noble estates, tomb construction, tradesmen
5) Peasant farmers/ agricultural labourers→ Majority of pop
6) Slaves→ Thousands of captives employed by wealthy, in army, in temple workshops

Question 10

Roles of Pharoah

Answer 10

Exercised absolute power over his subjects→ had both earthly and divine roles as provider and protector of his people

People revered him as King and representative of gods

Power came responsibility→ at all times; main role was to uphold maat

Chief priest of all religious cults→ made daily offerings to the gods in temples; rituals often delegated to high priests of gods and their attendants

Pharaoh was chief judge and supreme commander of the army

Pharoah regarded as earthly form of falcon god; Horus, the son of Re (sun god) and Osiris when he died

Question 11

Representations of Pharaoh

Answer 11

Authority of King shown by regalia or kingly dress

Could be recognised by headdress, symbols of authority he carried and other accoutrements (e.g.
False beard, kilt, tail and weapons)

Number of representations became standard features of iconography (way depicted in reliefs and statues)

Question 12

Warrior Pharaoh Image

Answer 12

Many pharaohs of NK→ true warrior kings (Thutmose I, Thutmose III) led troops in war

No matter abilities or if reigns were peaceful→ pharaohs always depicted as warrior kings

Typically show Pharoah hitting enemy with mace or attacking enemies in war chariots

Military image of Pharaoh was Sphinx (seated pose or trampling enemies)

Question 13

Concept of Maat

Answer 13

Only could be maintained if king carried out divine duties→ showing gratitiude to gods by performing sacred rituals, constructing temples, upholding righteousness and dispensing justice

According to creation myth→ world was in state of continual tension between order and chaos.

Primary duty of pharaoh was to maintain maat (harmony of universe and protect Egypt from forces of chaos)

Concept of maat embodied truth and justice

Abstract concept but personified as a goddess (usually depicted with ostrich feather on head)

Goddess controlled cycle of seasons and stars and relationships between Egyptian people and their god

Question 14

Role of Vizier

Answer 14

Supervised work of other officials; Acted as king’s deputy

Responsible for main departments of govt

All major officials reported to him (including managers of treasury, granary, state building projects, town mayors and provincial governors)

NK→ administration became complex and office of vizier was split into two
One controlled north
One controlled south (based in Thebes)

“He dispatches every official of the Royal domain…”Tomb of REKHMIRE (vizier of Thutmose III)

Duties included;

• Maintaining law and order in civil cases,
• Supervising king’s residence,
• Appointing and supervising officials ,
• Supervising temple workshops and estates,
• Controlling public works

Question 15

Duties of Vizier

Answer 15

• Maintaining law and order in civil cases,
• Supervising king’s residence,
• Appointing and supervising officials ,
• Supervising temple workshops and estates,
• Controlling public works

Question 16

NKE: Role of Religious Elites

Answer 16

Many cults in Egypt for worship of different gods

Administered by overseer of prophets of all gods of Upper and Lower Egypt (position held by Chief Priest of Amun)

Temples were endowed by pharoahs with huge estates→ provided produce necessary for daily offerings to the gods and maintenance of staff (officials, priests, scribes, craftsmen)

Question 17

NKE: Role of Administrative Elites

Answer 17

Responsible for internal govt of Egypt (most important were viziers)

Overseer of Treasury→ responsible for taxation (paid in grain and cattle) stored in temple and state granaries for distribution in wages to officials and workers

Overseer of granaries→ supervised network of scribes who recorded intake, storage and distribution of grains and supplies

Other officials controlled judiciary (police)

Local district→ provincial governors, town mayors and lesser officials

Question 18

NKE: Role of Military Elites

Answer 18

Strict hierarchy headed by Pharaoh (advised by council made up of vizier and most senior military officers)

Main divisions were infantry and chariotry

Vital role of military in creation and maintenance of empire→ meant army leaders enjoyed high status and influence

Question 19

NKE: Nature of Army

Answer 19

Professional standing force

Served as a focus for growing nationalism (stimulated by victories in the war of liberation over the Hyksos)

Provided important career path for men of ambition and talent

Chariotry division led by the Pharaoh

As it conquered neighbouring regions→ it incorporated foreign troops as auxiliaries

Conquered regions were controlled by garrison troops stationed st strategically located fort’s; soldiers policed the local area collecting tribute and quelling any local rebellion

Question 20

NKE: Makeup of Army

Answer 20

Infantry were recruited from conscripts and volunteers (spear men, bow men, axe bearers, club slingers, scouts, spies and messengers)

Chariotry were elite unit in army→ distinguished men of high birth, used as strike weapons ahead of infantry

Captives were bound, led by ropes around neck in front of pharaoh’s chariot or put to work in mines

During peacetime→ garrisons of soldiers left in towns and fortresses, colonists settled on farms, mercenaries in resident cities, soldiers acted as bodyguards for the King at festival time, employed in public works, accompanied on trade and mining expeditions

Question 21

NKE: Army Equipment and Armour

Answer 21

Naval contingents were used for transport and communications

Infantrymen were equipped with long and short range weapons. Most important was bow. Others included spears, lances, boomerangs

Used daggers, sticks and clubs for hand to hand combat.

Protective shields were made of wood covered with animal hide

Adaption of Hyksos military technology changed the nature of NK army.

E.g. Horse drawn chariot → new chariot corps gave army mobility in battle and in pursuit of enemies (chariot became distinctive symbol of warrior Pharaoh)

Body armour used and adopted curved swords

Question 22

NKE: Army- Military Campaigns

TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION

Answer 22

Desert marches by infantry

Navy was used to ferry army up and down Nile and to transport men and supplies to Asiatic capital cities (E.g. Byblos for campaigns against Syria)

Question 23

NKE: Army- Military Campaigns

DECISION MAKING AND TACTICS

Answer 23

Pharoah ultimate authority,

Councils of war with generals

Frontal attack on enemy position, led by chariotry

Use of siege tactics to force surrender

Question 24

NKE: Army- Military Campaigns

SPOILS OF WAR

Answer 24

Slaves
Grain and livestock
Weapons and armour
Luxury items

Question 25

NKE: Army- Military Campaigns

TREATMENT OF THE DEFEATED

Answer 25

Slaughter→ hands or genitals cut off to keep tally of the dead,

Taking of hostages or captives (e.g. Children of enemy leaders)

Execution of rebel leaders, Mutilation and display of bodies as deterrents

Question 26

NKE: Royal Women

Answer 26

Woman’s role and status in NK depended on husband or close male relative

Some royal women had own tomb, but rare , most buried in tombs of male relatives

Dynastic roles was to maintain royal line of succession by providing heirs (kings had many wives)

Most important royal women were queens, wives or mothers of pharaoh

Religious role of queen as consort was to provide female principle that complemented the pharaohs relationship to male gods. E.g She was the hathor to his Horus

Duties of god’s wife of Amun→ included important rituals enacted within temple of karnak→ major precinct of Amun

Political role unclear→ traditionally wife of dead king acted as regent for new pharaoh when he was too young to rule in his own right

Still other wives were foreign princesses whose diplomatic marriage to the king cemented relations between Egypt and neighbouring powers

Egyptian princesses were never sent away as bridges for foreign rulers→ demonstrates Egypt’s superiority over its neighbours

Question 27

NKE: Women of all classes:

Answer 27

• Inherit property, sell and buy
• Buy slaves
• Live alone without protection of male guardian
• Retain property if divorced
• Most women didn’t read; positions in bureaucracy limited to men

Question 28

NKE: Non- Royal Upper Class women

Answer 28

Duty to support husbands in their careers (married women wore respected)

Could carry out acceptable activities outside home (activities in temples etc)

With motherhood→ status increased→ more kids→ greater social standing

Chief role for all women→ Mistress of house, but in upper class (servants/slaves) role was supervisory

Reliefs from tombs→ Indicate activities included weaving, caring for animals, producing crafts items as well as baking, brewing, cooking

Bringing up children occupied a large amount of their time→ But had advantages of wet nurses and nannies

Question 29

NKE: Non Royal Lower Class Women

Answer 29

Among the slave class, women worked in the household as bakers, as personal attendants for the mistress and as entertainers. Also prostitutes.

Occupied with household tasks of raising children, preparing foods, weaving cloth and other physical tasks

Worked in the fields, on regular basis or at least in times of harvest or when extra labour was required

Question 30

NKE: Slaves

Answer 30

Workers made up majority of population; Highest ranking of class were scribes→(literate members of society)

Included secretaries and clerks→ jobs were to keep careful records(especially matters relating to tax and state administration)

Skills of scribes were essential to running of government

Wrote letters, despatches, surveyed and, measured eight of crops to assess taxes. Census, items of tribute and trade, measured and recorded gold supplies in temples, recorded allocation if equipment and rations to royal tomb workers

Question 31

NKE: Artisans

Answer 31

Other skilled workers included artists and craftsmen (sculptors, carpenters, jewellers)

Influx of wealth into Egypt→ increasing need for trained artists and craftsmen with skills and imagination to meet demands of:

Kings massive building projects, dedicated luxury gods to gods, filled tombs with finest funerary objects

Upper classes→ tastes became more sophisticated, lifestyle more opulent, tombs more elaborate

Army equipment. E.g. chariots, weapons

Hierarchy of craftsmen; royal sculptors and goldsmiths at the top

Most favoured in group were those that worked in the Kings tombs

Question 32

NKE: Agricultural Workers

Answer 32

Majority of pop were unskilled workers, occupied mainly in agriculture (mainstay of Egyptian economy)

Sometimes conscripted to work on buildings and major water and land management schemes

Peasant was backbone to society; all other classes depended on farmers for their survival

Other unskilled workers; animal herders and fishermen and servants of nobility→ prepared food and wine for banquets, performed as musicians, singers and dancers and waited on their superiors

Temple servants carried out similar duties in the cults of the various gods

Question 33

NKE: The Economy: Importance of the Nile

Answer 33

Crucial to development of economy→ agriculture depended on inundation

Food production most important economic activity

Fertile land bordering Nile also supported large herds and flocks of livestock

Nile was highway and main means of transport of goods between many of the towns and villages of

Question 34

NKE: The Economy: Agriculture

Answer 34

Economy depended on agriculture from earliest times

After each inundation→ govt officials re-established old boundaries that had been swept away, created new dykes, measured land areas for next planting season

Silt deposited each year by Nile was fertile, but sometimes irrigation by hand was necessary

Shaduf helped this→ mechanism to transfer water from
Nile to fields under cultivation (Beam, balanced on supporting tower, with bucket in one end and stone as counterweight.) Bucket was dipped in the river then swung around and emptied into irrigation ditch

E.g. Tomb scene painting showing a shaduf in the New Kingdom

• Akhet (Inundation) → July-Oct: Workers relieved from field work, most work done on temples
• Peret (Springtime) → Nov-Feb: Ploughing and sowing crops, emergence of plants in main growing season,
• Shemu (harvest) → March- June: Harvesting, threshing and winnowing of grain, grain storag

Question 35

NKE: The Economy: Animal Husbandry

Answer 35

Livestock supplied meat, milk, hides and dung for cooking fuel. Oxen used for ploughing

Domesticated animals raised for food (pigs, sheep, goats)

Archaeological source of the inspection of cattle from the tomb of Nebamun, an 18th dynasty nobleman→ depicts cattle and how they were used in agriculture

Question 36

NKE: The Economy: Transport

Answer 36

Nile was main highway of Ancient Egypt (goods transported between major ports)

Heavy building stone (limestone, granite) transported on barges

E.g. Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Dier el Bahri; scene of the transportation of a pair of obelisks from Aswan to Thebes

Facilitated domestic trade between villages and towns

Question 37

NKE: Economic Exchange: BARTER

Answer 37

Main form of economic exchange involved sophisticated barter system (used scale of value)

Main standard used for small transactions was copper, and basic unit was one deben

Value of any exchangeable commodity was expressed as a number of copper deben

E.g. One coffin valued at 25 deben → buyer would have tendered goods (goats, pigs) to this value

Economy depended on the distribution of raw materials and produce, including imported goods and locally produced commodities (barley, cattle, wine, linen)

Goods were redirected by the Royal storehouses as wages to officials, priests, artisans

Question 38

NKE: Economic Exchange: TAXATION

Answer 38

Agricultural and other produce was carefully measured, countered and recorded by scribes

Govt granaries where grain was stored were essential to economy→ in absence of money currency, agricultural yield formed basis of tax system

Tax collection was most important task carried out by central administration

Conducted by treasury officials accompanied by scribes, and policemen carrying sticks

Tax calculated on heat of annual inundation

Addition to agricultural produce→ officials assessed trees, ponds, canals, herds, flocks and the yield from hunting and fishing

Egyptians careful accountants and tax evaders were severely punished

Tomb scenes depict assessment of produce and collection of taxes by scribes

Sometimes farmers beaten for tax evasion
“He is beaten savagely.” LANSING PAPYRUS

Any produce left after tax, farmers could barter in markets

Once the taxes were paid, there was very little left for farmers basic needs

Cheating on taxes was overcome by measuring height of crops and assessing amount of tax payable before crop was harvested.

Question 39

NKE: Impact of Empire: BOOTY

Answer 39

Military Scribes kept inventory of plundered goods taken back to Egypt after successful campaigns

Pharaohs proudly included lists of booty in victory stelae and temple pylons to advertise their success

Annals of Thutmose III records some booty taken after surrender of Megiddo:

“living prisoners: 340. Hands:83…One fine coat of mail belonging to the enemy.”

Question 40

NKE: TRIBUTE

Answer 40

All goods coming to Egypt from foreign countries referred to as inw→ means “things brought”

Egyptians didn’t always distinguish between goods that came as a result of conquest, diplomacy or trade

Conquered towns became vassals of Egypt, and were required to pay an annual tribute or tax

One of most important results of creation of empire→ development of diplomatic relationships with neighbours

Rulers of Mitanni and Babylonians recognised Egypt’s influence in region and exchanged gifts of gold and other valuables with the pharaohs→ Egyptians portrayed such gifts as tribute

Peaceful trading missions often followed conquest and diplomacy

Many scenes in tombs of important officials show columns of men bearing foods to be presented to the pharaoh or his officials

E.g. In tomb of Rekhmire (vizier of Thutmose III) shows Minoans dressed in typical kilts carrying distinctive Minoan pottery vessels→ Crete never conquered so scene probably depicts peaceful trading mission

Question 41

NKE: Tribute through conquest

Answer 41

Annual taxes levied in conquered towns and cities.

E.g.timber, copper, lead from vessel towns in Syria

Question 42

NKE: Tribute through diplomacy

Answer 42

Diplomatic gifts exchanged with neighbouring powers.

E.g. Gifts accompanying diplomatic marriages between Amenhotep III and princesses from Babylon and Naharin

Question 43

NKE: Tribute through Trade

Answer 43

Products acquired through commercial exchange.

E.g. Ivory from Syria, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan

Question 44

NKE: TRADE

Answer 44

Foreign trade conducted through barter system (usually royal missions on behalf of king or great cult temples)

Merchants and soldiers followed in footsteps of soldiers and new and exotic goods made their way into Egypt from places a far away as Afghanistan and babylon

Expedition to Punt during reign of Hatshepsut→ ships returned from Punt with exotic goods such as incense trees, gold, ebony, elephant tusks and panther skins

Question 45

Crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal

Answer 45

Goldsmiths→ hammered gold and gold foil into shape to make ritual vessels, shrines, and jewellery

Jewellers→ brazing to fit lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise, faience beads into gold, drilling into stone beads with bow drills to make collars, earrings and bracelets

Portrait sculptors→ producing statues of kings and gods with bronze chisels and diorite polishers

Metal workers→ smelting ingots of copper and tin (bronze) in large furnaces and pouring material into moulds to make temple doors, mirrors and weapons

Carpenters→ working in cedar, ebony, meru woods with axes, pull saws, adzes, chisels and bow drills to produce coffin sleds, shrines, furniture and chariots

Leather makers→ soaking hides in jars of oils, stretching them over a board, hammering and scraping until the oil is absorbed into the skin and cutting out shapes for sandals, satchels, helmets and quivers

Question 46

Crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal

DIER EL MEDINA

Answer 46

Craftsmen of Dier el Medina→ given better rations, supervised by vizier, equipment from govt warehouses, water, laundry etc→ worked 8 days in 4 hour shifts, returned to family for 2 days→ careful records

Tombs paintings show range of industry→ but not all stages of manufacturing are shown, tomb artist was selective in his choice of activities and techniques (TOMB OF REKHMIRE)

Question 47

Technology: tools, building materials, techniques and construction

Answer 47

Beginning of 18th dynasty→ known for exquisite craftsmanship and decoration

Process for construction of tombs–. When King commissioned building, everyone rejoiced→ would be employed, better access to rations and supplies

Once site chosen, plans drawn up and quarrying began
Stonemasons use copper and bronze spikes→ pounded with wooden mallet→ split the rock→ limestone debris removed from site in baskets→
Deposited on the Valley floor

Plasterers followed→ smoothing down walls

Draftsmen outline layout of text and pictures in red ink→ mistakes or improvements marked in black by master draftsmen

Sculptors and painters followed→ some stone did not favour reliefs so scenes were painted in plaster
surface→ where carving was possible, sculptors used
bronze chisels→ reliefs were then painted

Question 48

Technology: tools, building materials, techniques and construction

TOOLS AND TEMPLES

Answer 48

Tools: Chisels, copper/bronze spikes, shovels, brushes, ochras for colour, mallet,

TEMPLES:
Built of sandstone and red granite (obelisks, statues)
Stone→ pharaohs could decorate walls with painted scenes; colourful

Tools for quarrying soft stone→ stone or bronze icks, wooden levels

Question 49

NKE: Gods and Goddesses

Answer 49

Centered around family (temples called homes or mansions)
Strong links between God and Pharaoh’s

1) Household or village gods→ worshipped by ordinary people in shrines (E.g. Bes→ god of fertility)
2) Local gods→ worshipped by priests in cult temples (E.g. Hathor; falcon headed god)
3) Funerary gods→ (E.g. Osiris→ God of underworld. Isis and Nephthys→wife and sister to Osiris)
4) State gods→ (Ptah creator god, Atum→ sun god)

Amun:

• NK→ local god of Thebes→ raised in importance
• Associated with Re so would have no rival
• Responsible for leading armies to victory

Question 50

NKE: Cults

Answer 50

Each major god; associated with cult temple (centre of worship)
Some became wealthy; cultivation of land/trade, mining → managed by priesthoods

Cult of Amun-Re

• Most important god (chief god of state religion)
• Temple at Karnak→ higher status than other cults; priesthood became powerful

Cult of Osiris

• Originally fertility god→ after murder and dismemberment; became god of underworld (chief God of dead)
• Features of cult were important NK burial practices→ mummification, funeral, Opening of Mouth Ceremony

Question 51

NKE: Priesthoods

Answer 51

Called ‘servant of the gods’

High Priest; full time worked closely with pharoah, often held role of vizier

Second Prophet; in charge of agricultural estates, livestock

Appearance; ‘ritually pure’ → heads/bodies shaved, circumcised

Temples; not for public practice; priests prayed to Gods, not deliver sermons to civilians

Each temple/priesthood followed own customs and practices;no central system of religious belief

Priesthood of Amen→ Most important, controlled rich establishments, Pharaoh’s right hand

Question 52

NKE: Festivals: OPET

Answer 52

Occurred in Inundation (flooding) → lasted 27 days
Included 2 mile journey from Karnak to Luxor Temple→ particular focus on god Amun

Ensure prosperity and sustainability for the next year

Processional way to Temple of Luxor→ 24 days of sacrifices and offerings→ then returned via river

Significance/purpose
Celebrate relationship between state god Amun and their pharaoh→ Pharaoh was regenerated (powers of Amun believed to pass onto his living son) → maintained kingship

Hatshepsut enthusiastic; had resting stations built between places→ Relief in Hatshepsut’s Red Chapel; depicting a wayside shrine she built

Scenes of festival featured on colonnade of Luxor Temple

Question 53

NKE: Festivals: BEAUTIFUL FEAST OF THE VALLEY

Answer 53

Amun statue placed on ceremonial boat and carried to Nile; statues accompanied by pharaoh’s→ journey across Nile to necropolis (cemetery) Food offered for a feast

Shrines then taken to mortuary temples of deceased pharaohs where procession ended;rituals for dead ancestors performed

Public could visit and walk through VOK

Question 54

NKE: Festivals: Heb- Sed

Answer 54

Known as renewal of Kings→ oldest feast festival ; celebrated by the king after 30 years ruling and repeated every 3 years after→ represented ritual reenactment of unification of Egypt

Celebrate continuing rule of pharaoh

Most important ceremony in life of king

Amenhotep III had three festivals → His tomb scene shows the first festival;

Purpose:
Symbolically rejuvenate king’s power

Commemorate king’s ascension to throat→ recreated crowning ceremony

Question 55

NKE: Creation Myths

Answer 55

No one central creation myth; all different variations, depending on location→ 4 main myths (Heliopolis. Hermopolis, Memphis, Thebes)

All have some elements of primeval waters/ mound or lotus flower

Originally transmitted through oral tradition→ But in New Kingdom more were recorded down

Sig for religion→ Gods and goddesses associated with creation; kept world in order.
Temples considered point at which creator God came into existence, and were considered mirrors of universe. E.g. Temple of Luxor by Amenhotep III to Amun→ symbols of lotus on columns

Sig for death→ Symbolic of rebirth; observed in new days, seasons etc
Conveyed messages about life and power of the spoken word (essence of being)
Death observed in myths, as before origin, there was just lifeless waters and creation allowed life to form.
Tomb paintings depict creation myths and gods and goddesses associated→ symbolising cyclical nature of life and beginning of new life in afterlife

Sig for burial→ Little known about specific funerary practices incorporating creating myths
Symbols associated with origin of universe frequently in tomb scenes
Originally people buried with representations of primeval mounds on top of graves→ practice changed by New Kingdom

A. Spencer (historian) → suggests representation of primeval mound was in sarcophagus standing on block of stone in tomb, → important in resurrecting body in afterlife, due to appearance of life from original mound described in creation myths

Bowl from 18th dynasty; Sig→ bowl’s blue colour represents water (source of creation) and lotus symboli

Question 56

NKE: Osiris Myth

Answer 56

Seth jealous of Osiris attention; invited him to banquet and locked him in coffin;threw into Nile
Isis searched for body; performed ritual spells for protection

Re sent Anubis (god of embalming) and Thoth to help prepare and bandage his body→ form first mummy

Horus avenge father Osiris; battle Seth→ H declared rightful king

Significance:
Hope for afterlife→ offerings to Gods, judgment
Duality in Osiris’s order vs Seth’s chaos

Associations to the gods and goddesses and role in their rituals, beliefs (mummification and afterlife)

Reflects proper burial, spells for safe travelling of the Akh of Osiris (Isis) Book of the dead

Mummification was refashioned to a corpse of an (OK) mummiform similar shaped to that of the image of
Osiris, capabilities of “Osiris rebirth”

Akh of pharaoh = associated with other gods and would become one with Osiris
Prayer, mourning, blessings, spells

Question 57

NKE: Funerary Customs: RITUALS

Answer 57

Herodotus is only written record; 3 types of mummification (based on status and wealth)

Book of the Dead
Made available to public at start of NK→ used for protection and safe passage to underworld
Collection of spells, hymns, passwords, images
Found on tomb walls, papyrus scrolls→ Depicted “Opening of the Mouth” and “Weighing of Heart” (previously only on papyrus) Tomb of Sennefer

Am Duat
Reserved for pharaohs royals (sometimes favoured nobles)
Focus on journey of Ra through 12 regions of underworld (corresponds to each hour of night)
Ra is reborn in morning as the rising son; hope for rebirth in deceased
Commonly Found in VOK in royal tombs→ royals had guide for realm of dead
E.g. In Amenhotep III burial chamber→ decorated with complete Am Duat

Question 58

Book of the Dead

Answer 58

Made available to public at start of NK→ used for protection and safe passage to underworld

Collection of spells, hymns, passwords, images

Found on tomb walls, papyrus scrolls→ Depicted
“Opening of the Mouth” and “Weighing of Heart” (previously only on papyrus) Tomb of Sennefer

Question 59

Am Duat

Answer 59

Reserved for pharaohs royals (sometimes favoured nobles)

Focus on journey of Ra through 12 regions of underworld (corresponds to each hour of night)

Ra is reborn in morning as the rising son; hope for rebirth in deceased

Commonly Found in VOK in royal tombs→ royals had
guide for realm of dead

E.g. In Amenhotep III burial chamber→ decorated with complete Am Duat

Question 60

NKE: Afterlife Concepts

Answer 60

Afterlife known as “Field of Offerings” → where families reunited; harvests never failed, → good life

Belief that humans possessed a ka (life force that left the body at death) and ba (spiritual characteristics unique to the person)

Tools and food placed in tomb→ to use in the afterlife

Afterlife was a reflection of world they had left; with blue skies, boats for travel and gods/goddesses

Amulets given→ powers of protection, healing and good fortune

Funeral and ‘Opening of the Mouth’
Mourners part of procession, (usually females→ represented Isis and Nephthys)

Offering bearers carried food, flowers, wine and beer (for feast at mouth of tomb)

Priest conducted proceedings and chanted magic spells and prayers

Opening of Mouth ceremony→ held to magically restore powers of speech, sight and hearing

Priest wearing jackal mask touched mummy with chisel
Mummy case anointed, flowers placed around neck→ placed in sarcophagus in burial chamber

Question 61

NKE: FUNERAL

Answer 61

Mourners part of procession, (usually females→ represented Isis and Nephthys)

Offering bearers carried food, flowers, wine and beer (for feast at mouth of tomb)

Priest conducted proceedings and chanted magic spells and prayers

Question 62

NKE: OPENING OF MOUTH

Answer 62

Held to magically restore powers of speech, sight and hearing

Priest wearing jackal mask touched mummy with chisel
Mummy case anointed, flowers placed around neck→ placed in sarcophagus in burial chamber

Question 63

NKE: Mummification

Answer 63

Ritual→ dead body embalmed and wrapped; ensured safe journey to afterlife (took 70 days)

Egyptians believed spirit only could live forever if body was preserved forever

Royal and wealthy classes→ only could afford mummification

Religion important; ceremony and prayer involved in ensuring body prepared for afterlife

Priests played roles in every step (wrapping mummy, placing internal organs in canopic jars, blessing entrance of tomb at funeral)

Embalming body
Body cleansed with Nile water→ ‘rebirth”

Essential that heart left inside the body (for entrance ot afterlife)

Preserved toenails and fingernails

Applied resin to body as insulation against moisture

Removed brain through nose, incision in abdomen for organs

“They…draw out the brain through the nostrils.” HERODOTUS

Wrapping and burial
Procedure took 15 days; ensured body preserved for journey into afterlife

Heart scarab (important amulet over heart) → aided weighing of the heart ceremony
In NK→ most mummies contained in a sarcophagi

Question 64

Mummification: Embalming body

Answer 64

Body cleansed with Nile water→ ‘rebirth”

Essential that heart left inside the body (for entrance to afterlife)

Preserved toenails and fingernails

Applied resin to body as insulation against moisture

Removed brain through nose, incision in abdomen for organs

“They…draw out the brain through the nostrils.” HERODOTUS

Question 65

Mummification: Wrapping and burial

Answer 65

Procedure took 15 days; ensured body preserved for journey into afterlife

Heart scarab (important amulet over heart) → aided weighing of the heart ceremony

In NK→ most mummies contained in a sarcophagi

Question 66

KARNAK TEMPLE

Answer 66

Approx 200 hectares in Thebes→ Most important religious centres in 18th Dynasty

Contained 3 major sacred precincts to Amun-Re→ smaller temples dedicated to Ptah, Opet and son of
Amun-Re

Shrines, obelisks, chapels, statues, altars and stelae

Heart of the temple→ sanctuary (contained golden statue of daily offerings to Amun)

Hatshepsut describes temple of Karnak as: “The holy hill of the beginning”

Large sacred lake behind sanctuary

Major rituals of Amun’s cult conducted→ focus of daily offerings to Amun

Question 67

LUXOR TEMPLE

Answer 67

Along Nile→ Mainly work of Amenhotep III; “Three quarters constructed by a single king.” HAYES

Opet shrine→ Maintained relationship of king with Amun

Aligned with Karnak temple→ for grand Opet procession

Building unfinished at end of Amenhotep’s reign→ built on by later pharaohs

Decorated with stone→ scenes and hieroglyphics on the walls and columns

In ancient times→ would have been surrounded by mud brick houses, shops and workshops

Question 68

DIER EL-BAHRI TEMPLE

Answer 68

Temple built for Queen Hatshepsut,built against cliffs (limestone)

Special group of mortuary priests offered prayers, food incense on behalf of dead King and Queen

Funerary rites performed

Central part of temple→ avenue lined with trees and statues of queen→ Source: Kneeling,standing
Hatshepsut statue

Shrine to Anubis→ God of underworld

Reliefs in temple; different to standard sacrificial scenes→ Expedition to punt, myth of the divine birth of Hatshepsut

Question 69

Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes

OVERVIEW

Answer 69

Royal tombs plans complex; wall decorations→ texts painted on walls

NK pharaohs built tombs in hills of Luxor → feared for safety; thought protect from tomb robbers (VOK is safer and secret)

Question 70

Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes

ROYAL TOMBS

Answer 70

Rock cut hollowed out of limestone cliffs

Series of passageways and staircases leading to burial chamber, pillared halls.

Well shaft→ carry away flood waters and deter robbers

Burial chamber containing mummy of King in sarcophagus

Decorative features such as funerary texts painted on walls→ depictions of King in the company of gods also popular
E.g. HATSHEPSUT TOMB→ Entrance type was a staircase; fit for a king

Way the tomb was built suggests 2 burials; 5 corridors

Decoration→ soft shale walls meant it was unsuitable for decoration but mortuary texts written on wall

Reliefs on tombs→ not meant to be seen, but to help deceased in afterlife→ royal covered with funerary texts; corridors represented stages of journey in underworld and obstacles to overcome, or offerings to Osiris

Question 71

Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes

NON-ROYAL TOMBS

Answer 71

Through limestone cliffs at number of sites; Dier el-Medina, Dra abu el-Naga

Also rock cut but were smaller and different structural features

Typical tomb was T shaped structure(entrance courtyard leading into vestibule) → short corridor connected to chapel

Shaft descended from chapel to burial chamber

Wall paintings depicted daily life occupations (agriculture scenes and craftsmen)

Involved great investment of money→ many left unfinished

Tomb scene reliefs→ mainly concerned with rebirth concept and commemorating achievements in life and scenes of everyday life relating to office of deceased (E.g. Fishing, scribes hunting etc)

Question 72

NKE: Cultural Life

Answer 72

NK; rapid development in art; from contact with foreign lands (trade→ new ideas and material)

By time of Amenhotep III→ Egypt experiencing ‘golden age’

Question 73

NKE: Art; SCULPTURE

Answer 73

Big statues were beautiful in this age
E.g. 20 m high sandstone statues of Amenhotep III known that flanked entrance to his mortuary temple

Sculpture was functional rather than decorative→ statues mainly placed in temples where their purpose was to receive offerings, and in tombs where they provided a dwelling place for the ka of the deceased

New types of statuary introduced in period was stelophorous and naophorous

Stolephorus→ image usually a male is combined with stela which is inscribed with a hymn to the sun god→ such statutes often placed over entrance of Theban nobles tombs

Naophorous→ image always male but often in form of a block statue is combined with shrine

To create 3D statue→ artists started with block of stone on which guidelines were drawn on each side– sculptors chiseled along guidelines until figure began to emerge→ rarely was figure freed completely from its stone block (egyptians didn’t carve out space between arms and torso, or between the legs)

Lower part of seated figures usually remained attached to the seat→ less likely to break

E.g. Ceramic fish from reign of Amenhotep III; yellow and white combed decoration to show fish scales.

Question 74

NKE: Art: JEWELRY

Answer 74

Earliest significant evidence of Jewellery in NK comes from tomb of Queen Amenhotep→ tomb equipment included items such as ceremonial inlaid axe, golden daggers and flies of valour (important military decoration)

Pharaonic necklaces often contained important religious symbolism depicted in semi-preciou stones

More ornate bracelets worn by royalty were gold and precious stones otherwise made from beads and string; several worn at a time from wrist to elbow

Earrings were worn by both sexes after time of Hyksos period

Rings could be used to seal royal documents and popular amuletic motifs were scarabs and animals

“Gold was the favoured metal for jewellery” FREED, EGYPT’S GOLDEN AGE

Question 75

NKE: Art: WALL PAINTINGS

Answer 75

NK wall paintings found in royal and non royal tombs; designed to serve the tomb owner in the afterlife

Theban tombs of noblemen contain rich variety of scenes of daily life→ include colourful depictions of life on the Nile and in others officials can be seen receiving or inspecting foreign tribute brought into Egypt from neighbouring states

Funerary ritual scenes include funeral procession and the Opening of the Mouth ceremony

Most popular themes in Theban tombs shows deceased hunting- either fowling and fishing in the papyrus marshes or chasing game in the desert E.g.
Scene from the 18th dynasty tomb of Menna depicting the popular themes of fishing and fowling in the marshes

Question 76

NKE: WALL PAINTINGS : BALANCE/PROPORTION/SCALE/PERSPECTIVES

Answer 76

Balance and symmetry:clear outlines and simplified shapes, scenes with figures arranged in horizontal rows

Proportion: Horizontal and vertical guidelines in surface of wall

Perspectives: Shoulders are seen from the front, and torso and hips are presented in three quarter view showing head, arms and legs in profile, almond shaped eye is drawn as looking directly at viewer. Flat features pools or water) painted from above so birds or fish within can be clearly seen

Scale→ size is clear indication of status, tomb however is usually the largest figure to emphasis his status, wives, family members, servants, natural and architectural detail are usually shown in smaller scale.

Question 77

NKE: Love Poetry

Answer 77

Genre only developed in NK→ Egypt exposed to new people, exotic ideas from abroad

Some titles are called songs; suggests they were intended to have been recited→ likely they would have
been performed at banquets of nobility

Each poem contains stanzas alternating between male and female speaker

Themes; Longing for loved one, catalogue of lover’s physical charms

“My heart flutters hastily when I think of my love for you.” BE STILL MY HEART

Question 78

PAPYRUS LANSING: Be a Scribe

Answer 78

Only small elite could read/write→ all officials began career with scribal education (essential to administration)

Scribal education→ copying out written exercises, learning long passages

Example of scribal text where a teacher offers advice to young scribe→ compilation of praise for scribal career compared to other professions and advice to study hard

“Put the writings in your heart, and you will be protected from all kinds of toil. You will become a wort

Question 79

Wisdom Literature: Instructions of Ani

Answer 79

Instruction literature→ taught moral values and how to live happy, prosperous life

Variety of teachings→ humility, patience, trust in gods rather than material wealth

Instruction of Ani was believed to have been written in 18th Dynasty→ Ani was a scribe in the palace of Queen Ahmose- Nefertari and gives advice in standard form of a father to his son

Getting married and setting up home

Behaviour when visiting friends

Avoiding strange women

“Take a wife while you are young; that she make a song for you.”

Question 80

NKE: Daily Life

Answer 80

Highly stratified society→ social position important

Few exceptions but it determined a person’s occupation and all other aspects of daily life

Members of pharaoh’s court enjoyed life of relative luxury without needing to work for living

Scenes on tombs of wealthy elite show spared no expense for quipping tombs for afterlife, tombs adorned with personal belongings, clothes, furniture etc

Everyday living conditions evidence for working class very lacking→ see them depicted at work in tombs of nobles they worked for→ but tombs designed to show wealth and status of tombs owner so evidence of occupations and work is shown, but material conditions of lives and attitudes can only be guessed at

Question 81

NKE: LEISURE ACTIVITIES

Answer 81

Board games, big game hunting, fishing and fowling, gymnastics and athletics, archery, boxing and wrestling, stick fighting, singing, dancing and feasting

Hunting→ sport of kings and courtiers

NK tombs depict bird hunts in marshes of delta and remaining marshlands of Upper Egypt

For ordinary citizen, leisure activities probably took place in evenings after work, on days off and on many public holidays of calendar

Some leisure time was probably spent in inns, beer houses and brothels→ activities referred to in the INSTRUCTION OF ANI

Question 82

NKE: DIET

Answer 82

Healthy diet (fertility of soil) Staples were bread, beer, fish

All social classes→ great beer drinkers; wine also popular but expensive. Excuses for not coming into work in Dier el Medina→ was brewing beer

Upper class; meats, veg, cakes, wine

Lower class; Bread, beer, fish, fruit

Fish→ used to pay wages, taxes (scenes in temples show abundance)

Fond of game (ducks, geese, pigeon) hunted down with nets and in marshes

Fruits and veg available (onions, melons, grapes, dates, garlic, leeks)

Main meals at sunrise and sunset→ breakfast not family affair in nobleman’s household

Question 83

NKE: CLOTHING

Answer 83

Indicator of rank→ wealthy afforded finest materials

Men and women→ white linen garments

18th dynasty progressed; more elaborate garments (previously kilts and close fitting dresses)

Men and women→ wore human hair wigs and simple sandals

Working men and women; wore simpler clothes→ men in fields bare chested

Surviving clothes in tomb; likely their very best to be buried in; not typical clothes

Many went barefoot, but wore leather sandals on formal occasions

Jewellery→ well to do classes had colourful

Question 84

NKE: HOUSING

Answer 84

All residences (palaces to small peasant houses) → mainly made of timber and mud brick

Palaces and villas→ reflected opulent tastes of NK and Egyptian love of nature

Cool retreats with lakes, fish ponds, walled gardens, orchards

Inside walls→ lotus, fruit, birds, butterflies

Painted or glazed floors→ fish, lotus, ducks

Urban villas→ multi-storeyed→ basement for domestic activities (baking bread, brewing beer)

Family living area above street level

Furniture→ elegant; high backed chairs, chests inlaid with gold and Ivory, lion paws bed posts

Question 85

NKE: HOUSING:

DIER EL MEDINA

Answer 85

Whitewashed, 1 storey → opened straight into street

Flat roofs with access via staircase at back→ acted as cool terrace

Entrances furnished with offering tables, brick platforms (acted as seats during the day and beds at night )

Furniture minimal; beds, storage baskets, small tables

Mud brick house of peasants→ very basic, size depended on number of fam members

Question 86

NKE: FURNITURE

Answer 86

Chests stored personal effects (did not use wardrobes)

Quality→ dictated by social status→ only wealthy could afford imported timbers (local common)

E.g. From Tomb of Hatnofer and Ramose→ 18th Dynasty; chest and linens. Whitewashed wood,

Question 87

Occupations: AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC

Answer 87

90% of pop

Farmers, 
Herdsmen, 
Fishermen, 
Gardeners, 
Water carriers, 
Servants 

Papyrus Lansing

Question 88

Occupations: CRAFTSMEN

Answer 88

Stone vessel makers, 
Potters, 
Glass Workers, 
Carpenters and cabinet makers, 
Tanners and saddlers, 
Spinners and weavers, 
Jewellers, 
Artists and painters, Sculptors

Question 89

Occupations: Entertainment

Answer 89

Dancers,
Singers,
Musicians,
Prostitution

Question 90

Occupations: ADMINISTRATIVE AND STATE

Answer 90

Viziers, 
Overseers, 
Scribes, 
Soldiers, 
Sailors, 
Priests