Superpowers Revision

Question 1

Explain the characteristics of superpowers?

Answer 1

A country with the ability to project its influence anywhere in the world and be a dominant global force, currently the USA holds the only superpower position globally. The five key characteristics that determine the superpower status of countries are economic, military, cultural, resources and political dominance on the global stage.

Question 2

Explain the characteristics of emerging powers?

Answer 2

An emerging superpower is a state that is speculated to be, or to be in the process of becoming, a superpower at some point in the 21st century. This is characterised by its regional political and cultural influence, large and growing GDP and a large educated working population. The BRICs (Brazil, Russia, China, India) are emerging powers

Question 3

Explain the characteristics of regional powers?

Answer 3

Regional powers can project dominating power and influence over other countries within the continent or region only. For example, the UK’s influence over Europe or South Africa’s over Africa.

Question 4

What is the difference between colonialism and neo colonialism?

Answer 4

Neo-colonialism refers to where countries remain under control from overseas despite being outwardly independent. This is a form of economic imperialism rather than political which was adopted over developing countries from 1945 onwards. The mechanisms of neo-colonial power is strategic alliances, aid, TNC Investment and debt (e.g China in Africa)
Alternatively, Colonialism is where an external force takes direct control over a territory. For example, colonial India was controlled directly by British military personnel.

Question 5

Explain how the British maintained power during the imperial era

Answer 5

During their imperial era (1850-1945), one way in which the British maintained their power was through the process of acculturation. Acculturation meant that British traditions such as cricket and afternoon tea were introduced into colonial India, eroding traditional India culture. Furthermore, power was maintained by British military personnel, civil servants and entrepreneurs who migrated to India to run the Raj government.

Question 6

Explain how the USA maintained power during the cold war era?

Answer 6

USA maintained its superpower status in the bipolar Cold War (1947-1991) world through economic imperialism. The Marshall Plan, providing economic aid to recovering western countries, allowed them to have indirectly neo-colonialist control over these allied nations.
USA also maintained its power during the Cold War via NATO, the intergovernmental military alliance with other western powers, provided added protection to the US and prevented the spread of capitalism

Question 7

Explain how the USSR maintained power during the Cold War?

Answer 7

USSR created coalition governments with eastern european countries, then rigged elections in order to impose direct imperial control, creating the Soviet Sphere of Influence. The creation of the soviet satellite states provided a buffer zone from future military attacks on the Soviet Union.
The USSR also maintained its power through propaganda such as the image of communist success created by the Space Race. For example, sending the first dog into space projected the image of the Soviet Union, and communism, as prosperous, helping to maintain power.

Question 8

Explain how patterns of power have changed over time?

Answer 8

Global patterns of power have changed over time between uni-polar, multi-polar and bi-polar control. The 1600-1850 was regarded as the Mercantilist phase of British Imperialism, followed by the Imperial rule (1850-1945). This was an era of uni-polar rule of the British empire, during which Britain was a ruling colonial power unchallenged by other countries culturally, economically, politically and militarily. Following the First World War (ended 1918) patterns of power shifted into a multi-polar world as Britain could no longer afford its empire, in which there were many broadly equal powers with regional influence but little global influence. The multi-polar, inter-war (1918-39) period allowed for a power vacuum to be created, with no dominant power prepared to stop the rise of Nazi Germany. Following World War Two the emergence of the Cold War (1945-1991) resulted an extremely tense bi-polar setting, in which the USA and USSR were diametrically opposing superpowers with fairly equal power. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) and the end of the Cold War the USA has since become a hegemon in a unipolar world. The USA remains a hyperpower, currently unchallenged by any superpower with equal status.

Question 9

Explain how different patterns of power bring different levels of political stability?

Answer 9

A uni-polar world may appear stable, but the hyperpower (such as America) is unlikely to maintain power everywhere constantly. This means that they could be frequently challenged by rogue states. For example, communist North Korea threatens use of nuclear weapons on US.
A bipolar world could be stable, depending on diplomatic channels of communication between the nation or the lack of communication which may lead to the breakdown of control. It is clear that diplomacy in a bipolar world between the two superpowers can lead to disaster when looking at the Cold War, where the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 threatened the outbreak of nuclear war. Bipolar worlds are therefore “stable but scary”
Multipolar systems are complex as there are many relationships with a mix of rising and declining powers, as well as complex alliances. This can be seen in 1918 to 1939, where weaker powers were trying to defend themselves and strengthening ones were trying to expand their sphere. This is clearly very unstable as it led to the rise of Nazi Germany and the Second World War (1939)

Question 10

Explain the rise and fall of the British Empire?

Answer 10

The rise of the British Empire is categorised by two phases, the Mercantilist Era (1600-1850) and the Imperial era (1850-1945). The Mercantalist phase involved the regulation of a nation’s trade by Britain, with overseas exploration and the focus on trade of slaves and raw materials. Famously achieved by the East India Company. The Imperial phase extended British rule over foreign countries with more direct control like the setting up of government institutions to rule colonial population, increasingly complex trade networks, the spread of British religion and culture and the use of railways and telegraphs to connect the empire.
The collapse of British Empire from the end of the First World War onwards. The economic cost of the war for britain meant they couldn’t afford an Empire and the Royal navy was not strong enough to protect all the Empire across the world. Furthermore, human rights came into play and the Indian Independence movement (1947) solidified that Britain had no right to rule those people who did no want to be ruled by Britain.

Question 11

Explain how the world systems theory can be used to understand changing patterns of power?

Answer 11

Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory argues that the world is divided into three: the wealth core, the emerging semi periphery and the poor periphery, which is exploited by both the core and semi periphery. This system is dynamic due to revolutions in transport technology allowing the emergence of NICs and BRICs and countries losing their status in the worlds systems theory over time. Core countries use semi-periphery countries to manufacture goods cheaply, for example FDI into China’s SEZs, allowing core countries to gain economically. Periphery countries provide the raw materials that provide these manufactory industries in semi-peripheral countries, making them the furthest down the supply chain as they benefit the least.
While core countries focus on higher skill, capital intensive production, the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labour intensive production and the extraction of raw materials.

Question 12

Explain how the dependency theory can be used to understand changing patterns of power?

Answer 12

The dependency theory argues that developing countries (peripheral) remain dependent on wealthier nations (core). The dependence of core countries on the periphery is argued to be the cause of poverty, with tariffs on trade creating the unfavourable trade imbalance for developing countries. The core arguably keeps the periphery in this state of underdevelopment through trade and exploiting its resources. While the core controls debt, initiates the brain drain, and controls the innovation of TNCs through patents the developing world helps the developed world become wealthier and more powerful. This theory is weak however as it goes against the rise of NICs and the potential for the core to decline as seen in the British Empire. `

Question 13

Explain how the modernisation theory can be used to understand changing patterns of power?

Answer 13

The modernisation theory is used to explain the process of modernisation/ development that a nation goes through as it transitions from a traditional agricultural society to a modern mass consuming one. The theory considers the internal factors of a country with the assumption that with assistance, “traditional” countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been (USA, Britain) through urbanisation, industrialisation and modernisation which BRICs like China are currently undergoing. The transition from tradition to modernity typically involves westernisation through democracy and the lessening importance of traditional religious beliefs and cultural traits. This theory implies that society controls the speed and extent of modernisation but overlooks barriers to modernisation such as a lack of resources, proper geographical location and the impact of external forces such as terms of trade

Question 14

Explain how the IMF helps superpowers maintain their power?

Answer 14

The International Monetary fund lends money for development purposes, channelling loans from wealthier countries to those in need. As this is on the condition of economic cooperation and trade liberalisation stated in the Washington Consensus , wealthy Western nation providing loans are able to spread capitalism, helping them to maintain their power. By promoting global economic security and stability, wealthy countries gain more trading opportunities and the spread of their capitalist political power

Question 15

Explain how the WTO helps superpowers maintain their power? -

Answer 15

The World Trade Organisation has helped to regulate global trade from 1995. By promoting trade liberalisation, seeking to encourage trade between countries, free of tarrifs quotas or restrictions superpowers are able to maintain their power. This is because TNCs, like McDonalds, are able to enter other countries and promote the spread of Western culture, while also influencing the economic policies of these countries by inducing free trade and capitalism.

Question 16

Explain how superpowers influence the global economic system? -

Answer 16

Superpowers can influence the global economic system through IGOs like the World Bank and the IMF which both conform to the Washington Consensus, acting to promote free trade globally. This allows for the spread of capitalism, which is particularly favourable for the USA and also member countries of the EU, allowing them to influence other countries economic policies by encouraging a competitive free market and the private ownership of businesses that the USA strives for.

Question 17

Explain how global cultural influence and westernisation help superpowers maintain power?

Answer 17

Cultural globalisation helps to promote western culture such as consumerism, capitalism and also Anglicism - spreading English language and popular culture. The adaptation of a products designs to meet local tastes, culture or laws, known as globalisation, allows TNCs to conquer new markets. For example, McDonalds Chicken Maharaja Mac is the same as the Big Mac but contains chicken rather than beef which is sacred to Hindus. TNCs like McDonalds, which serves 65 million people every day, maintains and spreads American culture.

Question 18

Explain how TNCs help superpowers maintain their power?

Answer 18

Transnational corporations allow superpowers and emerging powers to spread their influence globally, both in terms of economics and culture. TNCs have been growing rapidly and some of the largest TNCs have annual profits that exceed GDPs of many lower and middle income countries e.g the Apple brand alone is worth $170,276 million. This allows TNCs to dominate the economic landscape in terms of production and sales, allowing superpowers to control the pricing of commodities and therefore trade. TNCs operate in developing countries and may influence government policies. Easy recognisable, language-free global brands such as McDonald’s and Nike, and global media corporations such as Disney, cause the spread of western culture throughout the rest of the world.

Question 19

Explain how economic alliances help superpowers maintain their power?

Answer 19

Economic alliances promote the interdependence of nations onto superpowers, this is encouraged by trade blocs such as the EU, NAFTA and ASEAN as there are no tariffs on imports and exports, enabling TNCs to operate anywhere within the bloc. NAFTA between USA, Canada and Mexico encourages economic activity between North America’s three major economic powers. This has benefited the US providing them economic growth of 0.5% each year and has so far created 5m new jobs in the USA. This economic aliance helps US to maintain their power as they export agriculture, cars and health services to Mexico and Canada, however this is in turn damaging to Mexican farming due to US farmer subsidies.

Question 20

Explain how military alliances help superpowers maintain their power?

Answer 20

Military alliances provide strength in numbers to superpowers, for example NATO collectively accounts of most of the world’s firepower and nuclear weapons. This comes hand in hand with a mutual defence agreement - if one member is threatened, all others come to its aid. USA is also a member of ANZUS and mutual defence with Japan, South Korea and Philippines. These naval bases give the USA global reach, allowing the USA to co-operate on military matters in the Pacific, an area which may be of particular concern due to its proximity to North Korea and China, preventing nuclear attack.

Question 21

Explain the reasons why tensions have risen over the arctic circle?

Answer 21

The potential for oil resources mean that countries with Arctic reach, like Russia, contest for rights under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to drill for oil that can be exported at a profit; it theoretically holds 30% of the world’s untapped oil reserves. This is perceived as expansionist by another nations, particularly as Russia seeks to reopen Cold War military bases in the Arctic to protect their claims to the area, threatening the US. It is also contested due to shipping routes; melting sea ice means that the Arctic is more accessible to container shipping reducing transit times and costs for transporting goods between manufacturing hubs in Asia and consumer hubs in Europe. For China the northern sea route (“Polar” silk Road” is more secure than other routes, and also reduces travel times by 10 days. However, China claims to be a “near” Arctic state but is 900 miles away from the arctic at its closest point. The USA disputes China’s claim therefore of being a near Arctic state as well as Russia being suspicious of China’s interest in the Arctic.

Question 22

Explain how counterfeiting undermines the power of TNCs?

Answer 22

Counterfeiting, the ignoring of intellectual property rights, can cause huge losses for TNCs. For example, US TNCs lose up $75 billion a year due to digitally pirated music, movies and software, effecting the long term revenues of TNCs. Furthermore, the counterfeiting of goods can endanger consumers if the products are faulty. For example, in Nigeria there is growing resentment towards China as a result of fires starting due to inferior Chinese electrical goods that cannot cope with Nigeria’s electricity supply. This will undermine the power of TNCs by damaging the brand image and peoples lives are put in danger.

Question 23

Explain the reasons for tensions over territory in the South and East China Seas?

Answer 23

In the South China Sea, China establishment a military presence on the Spratly Islands, which lie between Malaysia and the Philippines, a long disputed territory due to it being one of the world’s busiest shipping routes (30% of world trade passes throught it). Tensions are furthermore created as the Philippines government pays some of its citizens to live on the islands, in order to reinforce its claims. The limited military presence of the Phillipines along the islands is no match for the Chinese Navy that agressivley patrols these islands. Additionally, the legal Philipinnes claims to the Hague given in 2016 discovered that China had violated the Philippines sovereign rights by its fishing and oil exploration activities, increasing tensions.

Question 24

Explain one positive impact of China investing in Africa

Answer 24

China has provided a huge investment in infrastructure to Africa, with 18.55% of FDI since 2010 being dedicated to rail and road construction. This increases the interdependence of countries within Africa, helping it to become more globalised and accessible. This also creates vital jobs in such transport projects, allowing the poverty cycle to be broken for many employees.

Question 25

Explain one negative impact of China investing in Africa

Answer 25

Chinese investment in India has had negative environmental impacts. The illegal deforestation rates in Mozambique for example have risen significantly as Chinese imports of tropical timber have risen. Furthermore, the extraction of metallic ore in the DRC has led to widespread forest loss and river pollution as the Chinese exploits this resource for mobile phones and computer manufacturers domestically.

Question 26

Explain how the rising power of China has created tensions within the regions?

Answer 26

Political tensions have been caused regionally by their “String of Pearls” Policy used by China in the Indian Ocean. The salami slicing of territory from China to Port Sudan in the Horn of Africa with a network of Chinese military and commercial facilities is deemed a threat to India’s national security as they have become encircled. Furthermore, China’s support for India’s traditional enemy Pakistan and its Gwadar Port is viewed as a threat, compounded by fears that China may develop an overseas naval military base in Gwadar, which could allow China to conduct expeditionary warfare in the Indian Ocean Region.

Question 27

Explain how the rising power of India has created tensions within the region?

Answer 27

The Kashmir conflict is a territorial conflict, primarily between India and Pakistan. The dispute escalated into three wars between India and Pakistan as the Indus rivers flows through Kashmir which is a vital source of water for India. India’s growing power means it has increasing confidence in claiming the water, escalating conflict. In addition to this, India’s growing economy allowed it to construct the Farakka Barrage along the Ganges, crerating water stress in Bangladesh. The two nations have since been in negotiations but have failed to reach an agreement.

Question 28

Explain how economic problems facing the USA and EU are a threat to their power?

Answer 28

Debt is a huge problem for the EU, amounting to euro 9.7 trillion in 2016 and £1.6 trillion in the UK, which in both cases is about 90% of annual GDP. Debt reduces the ability of member states to conduct FDI in LEDCs to maintain their sphere of influences, this enables competing BRIC nations to do so instead. In addition this, Youth unemployment in the EU was 22% in 2015. In the long term, this risks a “lost generation” of young people who will undermine the political power of these countries by criticising the capitalist system.
following the 2008 financial crisis. The high levels of debt and unemployment that emerged from the crisis exposed the vulnerability of the US banking system. In conjunction with this, both the US and UK governments response to the Covid-19 pandemic proved insufficient. The USA lacked a position of leadership in the pandemic, possesing a considerably high death toll and performing far worse than other, less powerful, nations. Similarly, to the 2008 financial crisis, the 20th century superpowers suffered significant economic loss resulting in employment, due to a lack of efficiency in overcoming the pandemic. The governments poor response to the crisis, in the UK as well as the USA, undermined the influence of both states economically and socially, exposing a poor sense of leadership

Question 29

Explain why space exploration is important to maintaining power?

Answer 29

Success space exploration is symbolic of a technologically advanced society, this is why the Space Race during the Cold War (1947-1991) America and the USSR both strived for having the best space reach in order to project the successful images of their relative ideologies. The Cold War was also a time of rapid space exploration as it can provide protection against national security- the USA were fearful of the USSR military controlling space.

Question 30

Explain one possible outcome of global power in 2030 and 2050?

Answer 30

By 2030 we will probably have a similar global power stage to our current uni-polar world. The Chinese economy is likely to be similar in size to that of the USA but income per capita in China will be lower than the USA due to their large proportion of secondary sector jobs. As China will still be in the process of becoming a fully developed country it will unlikely be a global political leader by 2030
By 2050 however global power may be changed significantly, with China and India probably both powerful economically and militarily. The USA may have similar levels of power and influence to India and China, leading to a Bi-polar world or even multi-polar. India boasts its democratic, English speaking culture. However, China may not be able to develop this far as it faces the prospects of rapidly ageing populations and the unattractive authoritarian government that may reduce their development capacity.