Superpowers + Health, human rights and intervention - Case studies (DONE)

Question 1

Mackinder’s geographical pivot theory:

Answer 1

• 3 components:
  1. world island = large and wealthy continents of Europe Asia, Africa.
  2. Offshore islands = British isles and japan
  3. Outlying islands = North and south America, Australia.
• The heartland is the ‘pivot’ area at the centre of the world island which contained 50% of resources.
• Control of heartland = global control
• During time of writing Russia controlled heartland but could be invaded.
• Previous invasions such as Napoleon 1812, did not succeed as land transport tech could not be sustained.
• Britain were able to control coastal waters but Mackinder wanted to ensure Britain was ready for improved technology and increased inland conflicts.

Question 2

Somalia and Somaliland:

Answer 2

• Somaliland is a region of Somalia that declared independence in 1991.
• Somaliland became protectorate of British empire whose interest was as a supply of meat to British military in Yemen.
• The rest of Somalia was controlled by Italy
• Somaliland declared independence from Britain in 1960 and united with Somalia.
• In 1969 the army leader initiated a coup d’etat (military overthrow and take control of Somali Republic).
• Somaliland resisted military rule and was bombed by the army supported by Russian built aircraft.
• Resistance to military rule by other ethnic groups in Somalia led to a civil war and collapse of government in 1991.
• The country is a failed state while Somaliland remains 1 of 2 relatively stable regions.
• Somaliland has relied on the diaspora (movement of people towards Somaliland as it is a stable region) returning money through the Islamic finance system.
• Although the UK has not recognised Somaliland’s sovereignty it has sent aid workers and diplomats however dealing with Somalia simultaneously has created tension.
• Somaliland are frustrated that while many African borders created by colonialism are considered legal, the partitioning of Somalia during scramble for Africa remain to be seen as illegal.
• In the capital of Somalia, terrorist attacks have reinforced consequences of colonial influence on creating borders.
• Mozambique has been admitted to the commonwealth despite no links to Britain while Somaliland has not been allowed to join.
• Saudi Arabia lifted a ban on livestock imports from Somaliland in 2009 and imports from Vietnam and China are growing as the diaspora returns (more people in Somaliland)
• Business growth has justified investment in fibre optic broadband and mobile networks

Question 3

The Cote d’Ivoire, West Africa:

Answer 3

• IMF refused to provide aid to Cote d’ivoire until 2013 when the government agreed to commercial courts and free presidential elections.
• After economic reforms %4.4bn debt was cancelled, a further $10bn depended on reforms of electricity sector.
• Investment in education and training was dependant on the government creating a more competitive banking sector.
• The UN bans diamond exports after the country used them to finance civil war 2005.
• After min wage agreements and investment in road infrastructure the country were able to export cocoa again in 2011.
• Example of aid with strings attached

Question 4

The cultural impact of Apple:

Answer 4

• The iPod, iPhone and iPad have transformed how people work, communicate, listen to music and interact socially.
• Until 2015, Apple was the largest company in the USA, worth $724 billion, twice that of the second largest.
• Digital aspects have completely changed the music industry on the high street and in the way artists produce music.
• The music industry is now worth US$6.85 billion.
• The iPhone made communication more dynamic through instant messaging and facetime.
• The iPad brought age groups together, providing them with a mix between laptop and phone.
• By 2015, Apple had sold more than 1 billion iOS devices.
• The transformation of culture has been strong in China, because of the large difference between traditional Chinese communist culture and the capitalist USA.
• Apple’s brand image has had as much impact as the technology itself.
• For a young, outward­ looking generation that wishes for symbols of freedom, the iPhone and the Apple logo have become reflections of taste and lifestyle and a status symbol.

Question 5

Disputes over the South and East China Seas:

Answer 5

• Japan and China are in dispute over the Senkakus in the East China Sea, currently administered by Japan.
• Sovereignty is critical as surrounding seas are rich fishing grounds and have extensive gas and oil reserves.
• The islands were transferred to US sovereignty in 1972, but evidence going back to the 1600s is being used to justify claims of ownership by China.
• Japanese coastguards rammed a Chinese fishing trawler, arresting the boat and crew, and Japanese activists staged a protest on the islands, provoking an angry reaction from Beijing.
• In the South China Sea, China established a military presence on the Spratly Islands, which lie between Malaysia and the Philippines but are disputed territory.
• 30 per cent of the world’s trade passes through this route and it also contains extensive oil reserves.
• China have built structures and recently finished dredging the seabed to create artificial reefs and an airstrip.
• The Philippines government pays some of its citizens to live on the islands to reinforce its claims and although a limited military presence surrounds the reef, it is no match for the Chinese Navy that aggressively patrols the international waters.
• In 2016 China installed two launch batteries for missiles on Woody Island in the Paracel archipelago, in response to US military presence in SCS.
• The USA is committed to defending the Philippines and Japan, and aims to maintain its capability to ‘operate in an unrestricted way in the waters of our choice’.
• The Chinese Navy is working on quieter submarines, long-range anti-ship missiles and medium-range missiles.
• Tensions in the East and South China Seas continue to grow.
• An international tribunal in 2016 gave a legal ruling in favour of the Philippines’ claims in the disputed waters of the South China Sea.
• The tribunal also found that China violated the Philippines sovereign rights by its fishing and oil exploration.
• International pressure increased on China to reduce its illegal operations.

Question 6

Western Russia and eastern Europe:

Answer 6

• Tensions between Russia and other former communist states of eastern Europe have grown since the Accession 8 countries joined the EU in 2004.
• Changing their allegiance towards the West was humiliating to Putin who wanted to regain and reassert its former power.
• By Russia planting the Russian flag on the Arctic seabed, and its military intervention in the Ukraine, it demonstrates its intention to consolidate territorial claims.
• In 2006 and 2009 Gazprom raised the price of its gas and cut off the supply to Ukraine and Belarus in winter.
• When Georgia wanted to join NATO in 2010, Russia used the Russian ethnicity in both South and North Ossetia to begin an armed conflict between the two territories.
• A similar justification was given for Russia’s annexation of the Crimean Peninsula in Ukraine in 2014.
• On all these occasions strategic control of land has been Russia’s objective.
• Control over the Caucasus (border of Europe and Asia) would give Russia control over an gas pipeline route from the South Caspian Sea to Turkey and into Europe.
• The Crimean Peninsula also gives Russia complete access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean for its navy.
• During conflict between Ukraine and Russia, a Malaysian Airlines passenger plane was shot down, apparently by separatists armed by Russia.
• Russian military jets have also been flying very close to British airspace, and Russia’s intervention in Syria has used its military capability to attack both extremists and troops supported by the UK and the USA.

Question 7

Mozambique’s resource boom:

Answer 7

• Coal, oil and natural gas are abundant in Mozambique.
• Mozambique’s gas reserves could make it the world’s fourth-largest gas producer.
• Mozambique cannot afford the enormous capital investment required to extract and distribute the gas, therefore it only uses a little share.
• In 2000 the country’s GDP was only $8.1 billion but by 2015 it was $33.7 billion, and its growth rate between 2013 and 2015 was 6.9 per cent (similar to India’s 7.5 percent and China’s 7.3 percent).
• The IMF has predicted that in 2020 the GDP of Mozambique will be US$59.2 billion.
• With the prospect of a resource boom, tension has been rising between the government and opposition groups over who is allocated gains from new ports and railways.
• Land grabs, bribery and the unwillingness of mining companies to stick to promises to build new infrastructure for workers has caused international concern.
• The World Bank is putting pressure on investors to develop social responsibility plans.
• However, TNCs are already frustrated over the hugely complicated tax and concession arrangements in the country, with many waiting three years to start drilling.
• As economic wealth increases, Portuguese companies are beginning to return to a country that was previously part of their empire.
• Brazilian, Australian and UAE companies have already begun mining projects and the construction of rail links.
• China has created a SEZ in Beira, a neglected part of the country.
• The Chinese govt has bought a large stake in an Indian company (Videocon) that is exploring natural gas supplies.
• A railway runs through the main coal mining region and the main trading route linking Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia.
• The reopening of the railway link has brought hotels, banks, an airport and car- hire companies.

Question 8

The growing importance of India:

Answer 8

• India was cited as the third-largest national market after China and the USA.
• With a population of 1.2 billion people, India’s GDP per capita is small, however its growth rate (7.5%) is higher than China’s.
• India’s population is continuing to grow, free from constraints of birth control policy.
• The country is democratic making it easier to hold political leaders to account and counter corruption.
• Former president Manmohan Singh, introduced reforms and privatised many parts of India’s economy.
• High economic growth has allowed investment in road infrastructure (the Golden Quadrilateral project links the four major cities), health care, security and education.
• These reforms have continued under Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
• The current govt is investing in transport and ‘Digital India’ and ‘Smart Villages’ schemes.
• India’s diplomatic relations with surrounding countries such as Afghanistan have improved dramatically (aid).
• China is an important trade partner, and the USA has supported Indian development of nuclear reactors.
• Links have been developed with Israel, and the country looks to their support rather than Russia.
• India is a BRICS country and member of the Commonwealth.
• The country is seeking permanent membership of the United Nations, strongly supported by the UK.
• There are divisions that exist between ethnic and social groups within the country, and disputes with Pakistan and Bangladesh need to be resolved.
• India’s growing middle-income groups make the country part of a global emerging market.
• Its graduates are entrepreneurial, increasing start-ups and the development of various space programmes.
• Many workers are under 25yrs, creating a large and lasting workforce, many who speak fluent English.
• The Indian diaspora (movement of people) stretches across the globe, helping to spread culture, technology and ideas creating links.
• Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets in 2014, in comparison to 2.6 billion for Hollywood.
• The Indian Ocean remains a key sea-trade route, and India is centrally located with deep natural harbours.
• Tourism contributes 6 per cent of India’s GDP.
• Its low latitude and many hours of sunshine means there is potential for renewable solar energy.
• Some strategists recognise that its democratic government could be a vital counterbalance to an autocratic China.
• India’s investment in its space programmes are indicative of its ambition to exert hard power.
• India has greatly invested nuclear power and military equipment, such as two aircraft carriers.

Question 9

Bolivia’s development strategy since 2006:

Answer 9

• Bolivia is a republic where 68 per cent of the population are of mixed white and Amerindian ancestry (mestizo).
• The president represents a socialist political party supporting indigenous peoples.
• In 2012 the ‘Law of Mother Earth’ came into force, which recognised that Mother Earth is a living system made up of all living beings, who are all interconnected and share a common destiny.
• This was a new development approach that put nature first, in response to climate change and mining operations.
• Agricultural production has declined in Bolivia, and rural-to-urban migration has increased, causing the spread of disease, water shortages, mudslides, glaciers melting and lakes drying up (for example Lake Poopo).
• Average temperature is predicted to be 4°C higher by the end of the century.
• Bolivia’s resources are classified as ‘blessings from nature’, and emphasis has been placed on conservation, with controls on industry and pollution - including the rights
  of nature and indigenous groups not to be affected by development projects.
• However, this approach requires major economic change – changing Bolivia’s economy (which was mining exports) and attracting foreign direct investment.
• 20% of the population lacks clean water and 40 per cent do not have sanitation.
• The country faces a difficult transition to Vivir Bien (living well in harmony with nature).
• It requires renewable and efficient energy, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, food and energy sovereignty, investment in organic farming, and accountability for pollution and degradation of the environment.

Question 10

Sharia law - contesting the ‘western’ development model:

Answer 10

• Most ‘western’ countries have separated national government from religion, this is known as secularisation.
• This is necessary for a country to become democratic with respect for universal human rights.
• Muslims do not see secularisation as necessary to development.
• Sharia law covers religion and law for example, inheritance, marriage, contracts and criminal punishments.
• Some countries have embedded Sharia law into their constitutions.
• No laws in Iraq can be passed if they contradict laws of Islam.
• Some Islamic countries use this to justify an authoritarian approach.
• Many Muslims believe that Sharia is not so rigid and is actually flexible and compatible with human rights and some elements of ‘western’ development.
• Sharia has been used to restrict the rights of women, but during the life of the prophet Muhammad women were involved in every aspect of society.
• In Egypt, the Court asserts jurisdiction (power to make legal decisions) over sharia, and reconciles Sharia with international human rights and economic liberalisation.
• Islamic financial businesses are growing with products similar to the ‘western’ world, there are also international banks that have created Islamic departments and deal with Islamic bonds.

Question 11

Polio:

Answer 11

Polio:

• Polio is a communicable (can be transmitted from one to another) disease that causes lifelong paralysis.
• There is no cure, but it can be prevented by a vaccine that developed countries have used since the 1950s.
• Since 1988 global polio cases have fallen by 99 per cent, but the disease is still prevalent in some developing countries.
• In 2013 the WHO launched the Polio Eradication and Endgame Strategic Plan (PEESP).
• By September 2015 only one poliovirus remained, with type 2 and 3 eradicated.
• In 2014 South East Asia was certified free of polio.
• Conflicts in the Middle East, north-eastern Africa and Pakistan disrupted immunisation programmes.
• Monitoring is not reliable in some countries and some cases escape detection.
• There are also pressures on health workers and supplies of vaccines where there is high demand.
• Outbreaks occur when polio is spread from source countries to others, such as from Nigeria to Somalia to Kenya.
• In 2015 there were 106 worldwide cases of polio, mostly in Afghanistan and Pakistan where it is endemic.

Question 12

The health of indigenous people in Australia:

Answer 12

• Aborigines make up 3 per cent of Australia’s population, with a younger average age than the non-indigenous population.
• A 2012/13 survey found that the health of Aborigines was impaired by social factors such as losing connectivity with the land and their family.
• Aborigines live in remote areas with limited access to health services, which may also be expensive or culturally inappropriate.
• There are some major differences between the health of Aborigines and non-indigenous people:
  • Life expect is 10 years shorter for both males and females, with the main causes of death cardiovascular disease - twice as high as for non-indigenous people - and cancer.
  • Infant mortality rates are 2 x higher
  • Type 2 diabetes is 3 x more common, especially in indigenous women, and responsible for seven times more deaths.
  • Indigenous adults, especially women, are three times more likely to suffer psychological distress as a result of unemployment, alcohol and drugs issues, and suicide rates are higher.
  • TB is 12 x more common. Cancer rates are higher, with more fatal types.
  • Obesity is 30 per cent higher in indigenous children and 66 per cent higher in indigenous adults.
• There are some lifestyle causes of these differences:
• Indigenous people eat a poorer diet and 27% had a vitamin D deficiency.
• Exercise rates were similar and average alcohol consumption was lower (although for a minority it was much higher), but smoking rates were twice as high, accounting for 20% of all deaths.
• Educational achievement levels were lower, and incomes were 38 per cent lower.
• Education levels are being improved so that socio-economic status can be raised, and health services are improving by adapting them

Question 13

Human rights in Canada:

Answer 13

Canada:

• Human rights are valued highly, although in 2008 there was concern about discrimination against women.
• All suspected abuses of human rights are investigated, the government has its own human rights bodies and uses Canadian and international human rights groups.
• The law protects indigenous people, but there have been issues and protests over dams and pipelines built across their territory.
• In 2014 the government paid compensation to the Nunavut Inuit (northern territory indigenous group) for failing to provide enough resources for education.
• In 2016 reports of violence towards indigenous women and girls was investigated.
• The Canadian constitution is democratic and allows freedom of speech and a free press.
• The Supreme Court has said that the government may limit free speech if it helps stop discrimination, ensures social harmony or promotes gender equality.

Question 14

North American Indians:

Answer 14

• American Indians and Alaskan natives are 2 per cent of the US population, with 78 per cent of these living outside tribal territories.
• Indian territories are sovereign, but subject to treaties and laws.
• Only officially recognised tribes are entitled to assistance.
• The health and education of recognised tribes is provided through the Indian Health Service, which provides care for about 2 million.
• Since 1972 the IHS has tried to provide for reservation areas (of recognised tribes), but is finding it difficult due to the spread and isolation of the indigenous population.
• The IHS has been underfunded, with problems with sterilisation of equipment, and unqualified medical staff.
• Less than half of the indigenous population has health insurance, so their access to the US health care system is restricted.
• Their needs are greater than the US white population, with high infant mortality, suicide and TB.
• in 2012 education levels were 10 per cent below the US white population and these schools, run by the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE), have poor-quality buildings and poor governance.
• Obama called for better support for American Indian youth and launched the Generation Indigenous initiative in 2015.
• This focused on education, health and nutrition, and youth engagement.
• The 2016 US budget proposed $20.8 billion for indigenous programmes, an 8 per cent increase from 2015.
• This is to improve programmes in over 650 facilities in 35 states.

Question 15

Women’s rights in Afghanistan:

Answer 15

• Afghanistan has experienced political transition after decades of internal conflict and external intervention.
• This continues to threaten ethnic and women’s rights, and civilians are targets of terrorist attacks.
• 2.4% of full-time workers are women, and 14% enrol for secondary education.
• Legal protection for women remains fragile.
• Changing the culture is difficult, and female activists face being attacked.
• Laws condemning violence against women have not been enforced, though government leaders have indicated commitment to support women’s rights.
• Afghan parliament stated that relatives of those subject to domestic violence could not testify in court, making it difficult for prosecutors to gather evidence.
• Humanitarian Assistance for Women and Children of Afghanistan is a partnership working with local communities and women’s groups such as the Afghan Women’s Network (AWN) and the Afghan Women’s Resource Centre.
• These bodies aim to raise awareness of the EVAW (elimination violence against women) law.
• They provide legal aid, encourage women to speak out, and protect females within their communities.
• The AWN liaises with law enforcement to monitor the use of the EVAW law.
• It also uses the media to publicise the rights issues and abuse of women, and trains public service personnel in how to support victims.
• UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index shows that Afghanistan has made a small improvement, from 0.743 in 2005 to 0.693 in 2014 (developed countries score around 0.1).
• In 2014 the HDI for females was 0.328, lower than the averages for all sub-Saharan African countries, while male HDI was 0.546.

Question 16

Interventions in Yemen:

Answer 16

• Yemen is a small country on the Arabian Peninsula next to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
• In 2015 a civil war broke out when Shia Islam (1/3rd of population), began an armed rebellion against the Sunni Islam President Hadi.
• The situation was complicated further by the presence of Al-Qaeda and IS.
• UN estimated that 6,500 people had been killed in the first year of conflict, half of them civilians.
• Over 2.5 million people were internally displaced from their homes.
• Most of the population needed humanitarian assistance.
• The UN had a passive role, made no resolutions to support intervention beyond diplomatic dialogue to find peace.
• However, President Hadi requested international help against insurgents and to prevent civilians being killed by rebels.
• Several countries including the USA and the UK, supported Saudi Arabia’s belief that military intervention was required as collective self defence.
• The situation was complex because:
  • there were doubts over the legitimacy of President Hadi.
  • some countries wished to suppress the rebellion due to Yemen’s potential to train and support terrorists.
  • the rebels were directly or indirectly supported by Iran and Eritrea.
• The situation raised questions over international law and responsibilities to protect, suggesting the need for a political rather than military solution, to decrease risks for civilians.
• Saudi Arabia-led coalition (Sunni) carried out air strikes on rebels and the US supported this coalition with drone strikes against known terrorists.
• ‘War crimes’ accusations have been made by both sides, with both rebels and Saudi Arabian air strikes killing civilians.
• In 2016 Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) had eight medical projects in Yemen and the Red Cross has delivered aid supplies.
• Iran (shia) mobilised naval vessels to ‘protect shipping routes’ and support the rebels, while Pakistan (Sunni) helped enforce the UN arms embargo against the rebels.
• These foreign interventions challenge the present and future sovereignty of Yemen.

Question 17

Christian Aid in Haiti:

Answer 17

• In Haiti, 77 per cent of the population live on less than $2 a day.
• The country is in desperate need of development aid.
• It has a history of political issues based around disparate political groups (so different they can’t be compared), a power elite and strong external influence.
• The tax system is unfair and ineffective.
• The country is vulnerable to economic shocks and natural hazards.
• Recovery since the 2010 earthquake has been slow.
• Despite new homes, roads and schools the living standards declined after 2010.
• In 2015 85,000 people were still living in emergency tents.
• Christian Aid (an NGO) has worked in Haiti since the 1980s, aiming to empower citizens and support communities.
• After the earthquake, rural areas needed help as IDPs moved there, away from the capital Port-au-Prince.
• While many NGOs and IGOs concentrated on the urban area, Christian Aid worked at the rural community level with for example the farmers’ group GRAMIR.
• CA reached 180,000 people through its £14 million appeal and firstly, helped 2,500 families with emergency shelter and 7,000 with clean water.
• In a second phase it provided 32,000 farmers with seeds, and trained 35,000 people in how to prepare and respond to disasters.
• Health spending in 2010 amounted to $46 per person, with just 21 per cent of aid from the government, foreign aid contributed 38 per cent.
• Haiti continues to face problems, but many aid providers are now reducing their operations in Haiti; even CA only committed 0.97 per cent of its funds to the country in 2015.

Question 18

Development aid to eradicate malaria:

Answer 18

• The Global Fund (est. 2002) is a partnership between governments, private organisations and the general public with the aim to eradicate epidemics, especially AIDS, TB and malaria.
• It invests $4 billion a year in projects run by local experts and communities.
• Between 2000 and 2014 there was a 48% decline in deaths from malaria.
• Malaria has been combated through distributing 548 million insecticidal nets in 100 countries.
• Indoor spraying and artemisinin medicines treat even more people.
• Ethiopia has 3 million deaths a year from malaria, but in 2015 $611 million was allocated for action and 41.6 million nets were distributed.
• In Haiti the number of mosquito nets increased to 3.37 million in 2015 when the Global Fund allocated $35.88 million to a grant ‘Towards the Elimination of Malaria in Haiti’.
• However, mismanagement of funds made it necessary to transfer the grant to another provider in 2013.

Question 19

Gender equality and the ‘gender gap’:

Answer 19

• The Global Gender Gap Report in 2015 by the WEF showed that gender parity in education and health was almost achieved, but not achieved in economic and political terms.
• Between 2006 and 2015, 0.25 billion more women were earning money, but the earnings gap grew from $5,000 to $10,000.
• Parliamentary representation by women was only 19 per cent, although half of the 145 countries surveyed had a female head of state.
• Overall, the global gender gap closed by 4 per cent.
• Least progress was being made in the MENA region.
• Progress was made by Iceland and Nicaragua with some low-ranked countries such as Yemen and Saudi Arabia improving.
• However Iran and Pakistan stalled and gaps widened in Sri Lanka and Croatia.
• Data on gender related aid from the OECD show that Yemen received an aid increase of 150 per cent between 2006 and 2014, and Bolivia an increase of 160 per cent.
• However, despite Mali having an increase of over 104 per cent, they slightly declined on the Gender Gap Index.
• Sri Lanka had a decrease in gender aid of -32.5 per cent, which may partly account for its decline in the index.

Question 20

The impact of the oil industry in the Niger Delta:

Answer 20

• The Niger Delta is the 3rd largest wetland and 4th largest mangrove forest in the world.
• Ogoniland was one of the first areas of the delta to be exploited for oil after commercial production started in 1958.
• The oil industry forms the core of the Nigerian economy with the oil and gas sector accounting for 35% of GDP.
• Nigeria’s joint ventures with TNCs such as Shell allow Nigeria to exploit their oil resources.
• There is a long history of oil spills in the Nigeria, with 550 spills in 2014 alone.
• These spills are the result of an extensive old pipeline system as well as sabotage and thefts on different scales.
• Corruption and weak regulations have allowed the situation to arise and continue.
• It is estimated 20 per cent of production is being stolen, amounting to $20 billion in losses a year.
• In the 1990s the Ogoni people started peaceful protests about the damage being caused by oil pollution, targeting the TNCs involved and expelling Shell (SDPC) from their lands.
• Nine tribal leaders were executed by the Nigerian government in 1995 for these protests on charges of murder.
• Friends of the Earth (FoE) believe that oil has been a disaster for the country and that oil exploitation should stop immediately.
• The Ogoni have been badly affected by the damage to farmland, natural resources and fishing areas but there has been no action to clean up the oil spills.
• The Ogoni continue to protest, and organise events supported by FoE and other NGOs.
• In 2010 SPDC made a settlement with some of the Ogoni, with 15,500 people receiving $3,000 each.
• They also contributed $14.8 million in education programmes and health care.
• A UNEP report in 2011 concluded environmental restoration would take 25 to 30 years.
• They recommended how to improve the health and livelihoods of the Ogani people.
• In 2015 the Nigerian government finally agreed to act on the UNEP report.

Question 21

Intervention in Iraq in the 21st century:

Answer 21

• By 2003 Saddam Hussein had been in power in Iraq for 23 years.
• During that time he terrorised his people and conducted wars against Iran and Kuwait.
• He caused 635,000 deaths and evidence of mass graves in Iraq suggests that he killed 250,000 Iraqis.
• With his regime, disappearance and murder were commonplace, minority groups in the country were persecuted, a secret police operated, and enemies of the state and their families were tortured and executed.
• This regime was a violation of human rights conventions, but it took a long time to get a UN resolution.
• It was feared that Iraq was capable of using weapons of mass destruction against Iraqis and within the Middle East region, so threatening stability.
• There was international concern that disruption to energy pathways could cause economic problems in many countries.
• Iraq was also seen as a supporter of Al-Qaeda, increasingly a global threat to democratic countries.
• Critics of the invasion by US forces and its allies pointed out that there was no recent evidence of genocide (mass killing) in Iraq, and that weapons of mass destruction were never found.
• Also, the UN Security Council’s resolutions did not justify direct military intervention; innocent civilians would be killed in a military conflict, and it was unlikely that Iraq would ever become a liberal (respect others opinions) democracy, even with a new government.
• Between 2003 and 2013 184,512 people were killed in Iraq, 97 per cent of them Iraqis and 5,272 foreigners (including military personnel).
• Of these deaths, it is estimated that 72 per cent were civilians, with 11 per cent due to friendly fire from US coalition forces.
• An analysis of development data from before (2002) and after the intervention (2014/15) shows that health spending dramatically improved, from $8.4 per capita to $292, maternal mortality and infant mortality rates improved (by 9 and 8 per thousand respectively).
• However life expectancy and control of corruption remained the same, and ‘voice and accountability’ improved but remained negative.
• The country faced further internal conflict, especially when IS started its insurgency in 2013.

Question 22

Human rights in Jordan:

Answer 22

• According to Human Rights Watch, Jordan has significant human rights issues.
• For example, it accepted many refugees from Syria, but refused entry to all Palestinian refugees escaping from Syria and even detained and deported Palestinians who had entered Jordan illegally.
• The government narrowed the scope of its judicial courts and broadened anti-terrorism laws in such a way as to threaten freedom of speech: it has criminalised criticism of the king, the government or Islam.
• These restrictions extended to peaceful protests and the media, with nine news websites shut down in 2014, and journalists and students arrested and faced with possible charges under the Terrorism Act.
• Torture exists and is not recognised by a corrupt justice system.
• There are still restrictions on normal lives, such as the use of child labour and bans on marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men.
• However, in 2014 the USA renewed a five-year aid package, which will provide $360 million in economic assistance, $300 million in foreign military financing and $340 million towards costs caused by regional instability (for example looking after refugees and border security).
• The EU also pledged $298 million to help Jordan with the refugee crisis, and Saudi Arabia provided $232 million for development projects.
• In 2015 Jordan received over 5 per cent of US foreign military finances (third­ highest country), despite having a Freedom Index score of only 36/100 in 2016.

Question 23

The Guantanamo Bay detention camp:

Answer 23

• The Guantanamo Bay prison was constructed in Cuba in 2002 to hold extremists and terrorists posing a threat to the US.
• Hundreds of prisoners, mostly captured in Afghanistan and Iraq (Taliban and Al-Qaeda), were held in detention without charge or access to the US legal system.
• President Bush justified this because the people were considered war criminals, and the facility was not on US soil and therefore beyond US jurisdiction.
• However, the prison was increasingly criticised and condemned by NGOs because of the abusive treatment of prisoners.
• In 2006 the US Supreme Court said that there were violations of the Geneva Convention, and that detainees did have the right to challenge their detention in US courts.
• By 2009 it was clear that torture had been used on terrorist suspects, and President Obama instructed that the facility be closed and a way found to bring the prisoners to trial in the US.
• However, the US Congress blocked these moves, arguing that the detainees would be a greater threat once on the US mainland.
• In 2013 the prison had 166 detainees reduced to 80 by 2016, with ten transferred to Oman in January and nine to Saudi Arabia in April, where they will go through a rehabilitation programme to reintegrate former jihadists.
• In May 2016 it was reported that at least a further 22 prisoners will be transferred to different countries within two months.
• However, at least 40 detainees - regarded by the US as too dangerous ever to release - remain, and so the facility may be kept open indefinitely.

Question 24

The Yazidi minority community:

Answer 24

• In northern Iraq in 2014, IS caused Yazidi people to flee their homes and take refuge (find safety) in the Sinjar Mountains after hundreds of people had been abducted, forced to convert to Islam or killed.
• In August 2014 the US stated that they considered the systematic attacks on the Yazidi people to be genocide, which broke UN human rights conventions.
• The US and others regarded direct military action against IS as justified and began air strikes.
• Initial action was to clear a safe route for 50,000 Yazidis to escape from IS and make their way to Syria where they could be protected by Kurdish forces (Sunni Muslims with their own language).
• This was successful and military personnel from the US and UK visited the Yazidis left in the mountains and arranged humanitarian aid drops of food and water - this was considered sufficient, as the military threat had greatly reduced.
• The allied air strikes on IS continued and were used to support an advance by the Iraqi army to retake territory from IS.

Question 25

Economic growth vs human rights in China:

Answer 25

• In the late 1980s and early 1990s, reforms allowed village elections and petitioning to improve local governance and farm efficiency.
• It also enabled workers to move to industries in eastern cities.
• However, the main purpose of increasing local democracy appears to have been to reduce unrest in rural areas.
• Economic liberalisation in china had a market-orientated approach but no democratisation, which many Chinese people appear to have accepted because it has brought increased wealth.
• The country used its young, educated workforce and regional and local initiatives - to rapidly develop its economy.
• This rapid development was aided by FDI from the Chinese diaspora, in addition to global trade links.
• Some democratic institutions and processes helped support the authoritarian regime by diffusing opposition, using legal systems or co-opting (approving membership of) key players such as entrepreneurs and allowing intra-party democracy.
• For example, in 2010 the country’s twelfth five-year plan (2011-15) emphasised public participation.
• Some strict policies have been removed, but restrictions on political freedom and civil liberties continue, with harassment of human rights activists and the detention of journalists.
• The 2008 world economic recession affected China later than other countries, but this perhaps shows that to continue the rate of economic progress, its institutions need to be more democratic.
• Hong Kong still remembers democracy, and there have been pro­ democracy demonstrations and demands for freedom of speech, which may influence China in the future.
• At present, Chinese leaders remain fearful of democratic change and dissenters are still imprisoned.
• China ranks highly in terms of human rights infringements, and the Fragile States Index shows that China has become less stable.
• Governance institutions are probably not yet sufficiently developed to cope with democratisation:
• Although reforms of the central bank and fiscal system may have been the first step towards a more democratic regime, the Economic Freedom Index decreased showing that there is still a long way to go.
• The country’s GDP per capita is also now above the suggested $10,000 threshold for a secure democracy.

Question 26

Haiti - development aid failure:

Answer 26

• Haiti has received aid for a very long time, sometimes linked to natural disasters and sometimes linked to poverty.
• Consequently there is a plethora of NGOs in the country with aid money totalling an estimated three times the national government budget.
• While there are some positives to the aid, such as helping to get things done that the government cannot afford to do, there are many negatives:
  • local jobs have been lost to aid workers as little has been done to show local people how to help themselves
  • dependency on aid has been created amongst people and the government, for example NGOs provide about 70 per cent of Haitian healthcare and 85 per cent of schooling
  • local people have changed the way that they perceive things to the point that they cannot do things for themselves
  • contrast between aid workers in new cars and clothes compared with the conditions that the poor Haitians live in
  • locals not consulted about what they want and need so that aid organisations are perceived as meddling and deliberately keeping the people poor
  • only small amounts of emergency aid money for the 2010 earthquake reached Haitians, for example, of $10 billion pledged only about 2 per cent went to Haitian NGOs and government, and of the total from US AID for reconstruction only 1 per cent went to Haitian businesses while about 70 per cent went to US companies.

Question 27

The response to ebola in West Africa, 2014-16:

Answer 27

• Ebola is a virus disease transmitted from infected wild animals to people, and then from human to human via direct contact with bodily fluids.
• Mortality rates are 50 per cent.
• It first appeared in 1976 in South Sudan and DR Congo.
• In 2014 West Africa saw the largest outbreak, spreading quickly around Africa and even reaching the USA and Spain.
• WHO estimated that over 28,600 people were infected and over 11,300 died.
• NGOs such as MSF were first in the area, offering immediate medical assistance.
• In the first year of response MSF set up 15 ebola management centres, which dealt with 8,534 patients. MSF also provided 530,000 protective suits for health workers.
• The EU provided nearly $2.25 billion in aid, with the European Commission (executive body of EU) providing US$980 million.
• Of this EC money:
  • 8 per cent was for short-term humanitarian aid.
  • 28 per cent was for medical research and pharmaceutical industries to search for a vaccine
  • 64 per cent was for development aid.
• The EU hosted conferences discussing the lessons to learn from the ebola outbreak and address criticisms - such as helping poor countries develop their health systems so that they are better prepared, reducing dependency on aid and reducing response times by IGOs so that the initial burden does not fall on NGOs.
• WHO aims to prevent further outbreaks through surveillance in at-risk African countries, help with laboratory testing, advice and training, and engaging communities.

Question 28

China’s development aid:

Answer 28

• Aid Data recorded 2,762 projects using Chinese development aid or other financial assistance in 2016.
• China initially focused on South America but recently has turned its attention to Africa where it is involved in 51 countries.
• Chinese ODA also features significantly in SE Asia.
• China uses bi-lateral aid and the Asian Development Bank.
• However, China has opted out of the global reporting mechanisms so the aims of its aid are not always clear.
• Aid Data’s analysis suggests that:
  • China is less fussy than ‘western’ donors about where its ODA goes, but there is not enough evidence to show that it supports spread of authoritarian rule.
  • China’s influence in Africa is equal to that of the USA when including aid, financial assistance.
  • China’s aid has been concentrated on infrastructure projects, perhaps to facilitate access to resources, but there are also a wide range of social projects
  • China provides more ODA to the African countries that support it in the United Nations
  • Chinese aid is often concentrated in the home region of African leaders, consolidating their home support and opening up the possibility of future alliances
  • Chinese aid has been a positive influence where ‘western’ aid has been withdrawn
  • China’s ‘soft power’ does not appear to have increased as a result of increased ODA in Africa, countries still look ‘westward’ for advice.

Example projects:
- Social: Rwanda 2014-2016: 12 member medical team with medical supplies and equipment to Kibungo Hospital in Eastern Province.
Infrastructure: Zambia 2010-2016: US$930 million aid for 600 mW power plant at Kafue Gorge, southern Zambia.
- Resource: Bolivia 2014-2016: US$344 million aid via a Chinese loan to cover 85 per cent of costs for iron ore processing plant to be run by Bolivian company El Mutun Steel (taking over from the Indian company Jindal Steel and Power).

Question 29

Non-military and military intervention in Cote d’Ivoire:

Answer 29

• Due to its colonial legacy, Cote d’Ivoire has a north-south ethnic division, with a Muslim immigrant north and a Christian south.
• For a long time those in the north were excluded from government, which led to their armed rebellion in 2002, one outcome of which was to allow them the right to vote.
• In late 2010 presidential elections were held between north and south leaders. Laurent Gbagbo (incumbent president from the south) and Alassane Ouattara (from the north).
• The elections, overseen by the UN, confirmed north as the winner but the south disputed this.
• Supporters of Ouattara were then attacked and the streets militarised by supporters of Gbagbo, making them unsafe for civilians.
• Random mass shootings and mortar attacks took place in broad daylight and it was clear that abuses of human rights were being committed and that democracy had broken down.
• This was enough to convince the UN that intervention was required.
• During the conflict that followed in 2011, a million people were displaced from their homes and 147,000 refugees fled to Liberia.
• Armed forces loyal to Ouattara moved to the outskirts of the main city, where they met strong resistance from the better-equipped opposition.
• The battle lasted 12 days, killing 3,000 people, and ended when the UN Security Council authorised French forces to intervene.
• French air power attacked the main defences of forces loyal to Gbagbo, and a French armoured column secured the city and escorted Outtara’s forces to Gbagbo’s base.
• Gbagbo was arrested and within two weeks his forces surrendered or pledged their support to the new president.
• Within two months, the country was peaceful and normal life resumed.
  UN agencies brought in humanitarian aid for refugees and IDPs; the FAO provided seeds, tools and fertiliser for farmers.
• The new government pledged to investigate human rights abuses and produced disarmament plans.
  -Despite criticism from Russia and China, who said that a power-sharing transitional government should have been established, rather than the use of force, most regard the speed of the intervention and resolution of the conflict as a success.
• In 2016 the UN mission was ‘winding down’, and a development objective of the country was to become an emerging economy
  by 2020.
• With an average annual economic growth rate of 9 per cent since 2011, this is a possibility, especially as structural reforms have created an environment for the international and private sector economy, and the growth of agricultural processing industries.

Question 30

The Srebrenica massacre, 1995:

Answer 30

• The Bosnian War (1992-95), which was part of the break up of Yugoslavia, was an ethnic conflict between Muslims and Serbs.
• In 1993 the UN declared the besieged town of Srebenica a safe area
• After an evacuation of as many people as possible, French troops entered the town to observe the situation, and negotiations took place to allow aid convoys through Serb-controlled territory if the people in the town gave up their weapons to the UN.
• A Canadian UN peacekeeping force moved in to protect the civilians, but there was initial uncertainty about the use of force until 1994, when it was made clear that this was authorised.
• However, thousands of UN troops would have been needed to effectively carry out military intervention.
• Aid convoys were allowed through but, increasingly, Serb forces restricted their contents.
• By now a Dutch UN peacekeeping force was in place, but reinforcements had not been allowed through and so a 600-strong force had halved by early 1995.
• After a minority of Muslims attacked Serbs for supplies, the situation deteriorated and it became clear that Srebrenica would be attacked even though the end of the war was near.
• The people of the town asked for their weapons back but the UN refused.
• The small UN force was powerless when in July 1995 Bosnian Serb forces moved into the town and took over 8,000 Muslim men and boys into Serb territory and systematically executed them, burying the bodies in an attempt to hide the genocide or ‘ethnic cleansing’.
• This was the worst massacre in Europe since the Second World War and perhaps could have been avoided with stronger action by the UN.
• The perpetrators of the crimes were convicted by international tribunals, and UN forces criticised for covering up what happened.
• The failure of the international community to fulfil its moral and legal duty led to the creation of the UN Peacebuilding Commission and raised awareness in democratic countries of the need for active intervention.
• In July 2015 the UN tried to pass a resolution designating the massacre as genocide, but Russia used its veto to block this, saying that as the resolution only identified Serbs it would increase ethnic tensions.

Question 31

Tuberculosis:

Answer 31

Tuberculosis:

• Tuberculosis is a contagious infection associated with overcrowding and poverty.
• TB mortality rates have halved since 1990 due to improving nutrition and access to vaccines.
• However, in 1993 the WHO declared TB a ‘global emergency’ and in 2000 the tackling of TB was one of the MDGs.
• In 2014 9.6 million people worldwide were ill with TB, with 1.5 million dying.
• SDG 3.3 replaced the MDG with the target to move forward by 2030.
• TB is curable within six months, with the correct drugs.
• 43 million lives were saved through diagnosis and treatment, but this still amounted to only a 1.5 per cent reduction in TB infections a year.
• Some cases of TB have become resistant to medical drugs, and in some countries the management has been poor as an estimated 3.3 million cases have not been diagnosed.
• In 2016 StopTB called for a $65 billion global investment to solve this health issue.
• The majority of TB infections and deaths are in ‘lower middle-income countries’.
• China and India had the largest numbers of people affected in 2014, with 1.4 million and 1.3 million respectively, while TB mortality rates were highest in Nigeria (9.7 per 10,000

Question 32

Human rights in Indonesia:

Answer 32

Indonesia:

• Indonesia is an emerging democracy, with democratic elections in 2014, but its corruption has remained worse than the world average.
• A 2015 report by the US govt suggested that government investigations into abuses of human rights have not been transparent.
• The report also claimed the govt used torture 84 times in 2014/15, and applied treason and blasphemy to restrict freedom.
• The police and army often break up protest gatherings and in 2014 at least 4 civilians were shot dead at a peaceful protest in Papua Province, and there was no investigation.
• The separatist movement (those who support separation of groups due to ethnicity) in Papua provinces continues to be a source of human rights violations, with frequent arrests by the authorities.
• In 2013 Court ruled in favour of indigenous populations rights to own the forests, but due to corruption the forest is still used for commercial purposes.
• There is an independent national media and in 2014 restrictions on foreign journalists visiting Papua or West Papua were partially lifted.
• Aceh province now operates Sharia law and carries out public canings of those accused of gambling, alcohol consumption or adultery.