Superpowers Flashcards
what is a superpower?
A superpower is a country with the ability to project its dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, e.g. the USA, USSR and British empire in the late 1940s
what is an emerging power?
Countries with a large role in one or more superpower characteristics and with a growing influence, they are experiencing a transition in terms of their economic structure. e.g. china, Brazil, India
what is a regional power?
they can project dominating power and influence over other countries within the continent or region. they influence other countries at a continental scale
e.g. South Africa in Africa or Saudi Arabia in the Middle East
what are the 6 superpower characteristics categorised under?
- economic
- political
- military
- cultural
- demographic
- natural resources
explain the economic characteristics of a superpower
- seen as a prerequisite of power
- large GDP, high % of international trade, currency used as reserve currency, the EU and the USA produce over 40% of global GDP
- a large GDP creates influence as a potential market and as the home of TNCs which create FDI, gives the wealth to build and maintain a powerful military, exploit natural resources and develop human ones through education
- USA have the largest GDP- $18.5 trillion
- determine global economic policies, by joining political and economic organisations such as the G20
explain the political power characteristic of superpowers
- political power is the ability to influence the policies of other countries through diplomacy
- IGOs often do not equally weight members, voting power determined by economic contribution, historical role in founding of organisation (UN), population
- often due to dominance in other characteristics, e.g. large economy gives power in trade talks, military powers makes them a political threat
- G20, political power, they are a significant decision-making from
explain the military power characteristic of superpowers
- the threat of military action is a powerful bargaining chip and military force can be used to achieve geopolitical goals
- achieve global influence through a blue water navy (large ships for the open ocean) and missile and satellite technology
- indicators of military power include:
army size
defence spending
nuclear weapons
size of blue water navy
arms exporter
whether they are leading international military organisation - dependent on demographic power (no. of military personnel that can be deployed) and economic power (budget determines degree of investment)
- many see membership of the UN Security Council as the ultimate status of military power
- china have expanded their military but their interests lie mainly in the Asia region, south china sea, influence beyond there is minor
explain the cultural power characteristics of superpowers
cultural power includes how appealing a nation’s way of life, values and ideology are to others
this is achieved by:
- the dominance of media, they decide what music and films are played
- TNCs or migrant introducing cultural products
- imposition of viewpoint in international agreements
indicators include: global spread of music, fashion, food, language, religion
- WESTERNISATION
- the USA have the highest percentage of the world’s largest TNCs- 27%
- three record companies dominate UK music production
explain the demographic power characteristics of superpowers
- a large population leads to a large diaspora and greater no. of workers at TNCs, providing a sufficient labour force to generate economic growth
- demographic power also assists economic power through providing a large market and economies of scale (so more profit)
- despite a large pop being beneficial for economic growth, you can have a very strong economy without a big pop (Singapore)
- china and India each use their large populations as a source of cheap labour
explain the power of resources as a characteristic of a superpower
- the control of access to physical resources such as energy and minerals
- provides inputs for economic growth because their resources can be exported at a high price, making it essential for economic growth
- resources may be internally located or access through reliable source countries using transport pathways
- having access to resources doesnt guarantee development as in many countries these resources are managed by major TNCs, e.g. shell and BP in Nigeria
- OPEC and their oil
what is a hyperpower?
an unchallenged superpower that is dominant in all aspects of powers, examples include the USA from 1990 to 2010 and Britain from 1850 to 1910
what is hard power?
it represents a coercive approach to international relations and employs the use of military or economic power to achieve certain outcomes
- introduced by Joseph Nye
what is soft power?
a persuasive approach for countries to act in a particular way, on the basis that the persuader is respected and appealing. it includes political persuasion (diplomacy) and cultural influence.
- introduced by Joseph Nye
- western liberal democracies have the greatest international rankings of soft power
- the moral authority of a nation’s foreign policy
what are the benefits and drawbacks of soft power?
benefits:
- through the diffusion of their culture worldwide it gives them a global presence without the need to directly invest in the country, adopt their way of life, many rely on soft power for overseas influence
- the indirect effects of attraction and diffused influence can make a significant difference in obtaining favourable outcomes in bargaining situations
drawbacks:
- takes a long time to effect whereas hard power takes little time
- Soft power relies on a country having respected culture, values and politics, which may be enough to persuade some countries but not others, especially if they are culturally and ideologically very different.
give an example of soft power
UK
- diplomacy, they have one of the largest networks of diplomats and embassies in the world
- the BBC, they global service allows them to broadcast their English values across the world
- City of London (and New York) dominate international finance, banking and law - setting standards and values
what are the benefits and drawbacks to hard power?
benefits:
- it is fast acting so you can see the results better, you can achieve quick results by using hard power, quite tangible
- you cannot rise up without hard power, you must show your importance through military or economic power
drawbacks:
- even if the results of hard power are fast, they aren’t very long lasting
- the use of hard power makes people suffer, doesn’t allow people to have an independent opinion, countries may view the enforcement of military action as illegal and unnecessary, the aggressor may lose allies and moral authority (Russia’s invasion into Crimea)
what are examples of hard power
- the gulf war
- the invasion of Iraq in 2003 by US-led forces
- the American-led war in Afghanistan
which characteristic of superpowers is arguably the most important for maintaining power?
Strong economic factors
- at the end of the day if a country isn’t rich then it’ll limit them in all the other characteristics of a superpower. They won’t be able to afford a strong military base nor be able to have access to high levels of trade due to a lack of skilled workers and barriers to investment perhaps through infrastructure and education
- usa and china are such strong superpowers as through their wealth and focus on education they have been able to attract large amounts of investment, not only this but through their wealth they have accumulated lots of hard power through military bases,
what is smart power?
an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institution of all levels to expand one’s influence and establish legitimacy of one’s action
- it is a combination of both hard and soft power
explain mackinder’s geo-strategic location theory
in 1904 Halford mackinder identified a region that he called the heartland which stretched from Eastern Europe into russia. he believed that the heartland was the key geo-strategic location in the world because control of it commanded a huge proportion of the world’s physical and Human Resources
- he argued that whoever would control the heartland would control the world
- the further away from the heartland a country was, the less influence it would have
- the heartland is very hard to invade due to the physical barriers in place
- mackinder believed that russia should be the world’s global power due to its favourable location and resources but suffered from two disadvantages: it has many borders, due to frozen ground it has few year-round ports
- some argue that the Middle East is now the heartland
explain how Mackinder believed the heartland could shift geographically
- as a result of sea power
- he believed that Britain’s industrialisation had shifted the centre of power westwards, he believed that the UK could dominate everywhere
explain the changing centre of gravity of power
- it shows how the centre is ‘pulled’ towards the country/region with the largest GDP so it shows the importance of the British industrial revolution in 19th century to then lead to a shift towards the USA in 20th century due to their industrial rise
- the changing positions between 2000 and the predicted change by 2025 reflect the growing importance of china
- power has changed overtime, different power structures bring different levels of stability
what are the advantages and disadvantages of amckinfders theory?
Advantages:
- it reinforced the idea that control of physical resources (land, mineral wealth) was important
- after WWI, attempts were made to limit Germany’ expansion into this strategic area
- after WWII, NATO allies tried to contain the soviets from expanding into south and west Europe
- underpins what is still going on today, can be easily applied to modern geopolitics
Disadvantages:
- physical resources are traded internationally now due to the global shift, there is much less need to have them domestically and so naturally the resources are spread out of its countries of origin
- resources can easily be transported around the world and advances in military technology means armies can much more influence without needing to colonise other nations
what is geopolitical stability?
how well different governments get on with each other
- the relationship between Putin and trump shows one of instability
explain the unipolar power (colonial power) through british empire
- occurred between 1800-1919
- They gained the power through direct colonial control. Their navy played a large role in their growth as they transported soldiers and equipment to potential areas of conquest and their large and advanced armed forces conquered the territory and controlled it.
- As they built their empires through colonial control they were able to build power more globally. This started with ship building from their deciduous trees allowing them to explore new lands from the 1400s. They travelled by boat and started to colonise unoccupied land. This led to the growth of the British Empire.
- To maintain their power, Britain highly populated the countries with British military and British administrators. - They introduced British legal systems, education systems and inventions such as the railways, language, sport and culture (as seen in India with cricket)
Why did they want the power?
They wanted the power in order to gain access to the resources that these areas offer and once they took hold in one country they would then be able to gain access to the neighbouring countries. Commodities such as cotton, slaves and spices were used to set up trading companies which generated income and allowed further exploration. As the UK brought back the raw materials to their major ports, it fuelled the industrial revolution.
how stable was the colonial rule of the british empire and why did their power decline?
How stable was their power?
It was not very stable even though uni power is said to be one of stability.. They maintained empires mainly by force (hard power). Britain’s argument was that it brought stability and trade but instead they exploited the countries. Africa’s poverty today is now linked to colonialism. A uni-polar world should be stable as there is only one person at top but the costs of being a hegemon are high and hard to sustain. If the country in power has moral beliefs and fair intentions then it can be a world of great stability (e.g. Norway vs North Korea)
Why did their power decline?
- The fall of the British Empire occurred because the UK recognised that colonising countries was not morally correct, it didn’t work with conflicting opinions.
- Germany started to rise and many believe that WW1 started because of this.
- rapid American industrialisation after the 1860s challenged british economic power, their transnational rail links gives them an economic power base which allowed them to take over the UK economically
explain the multipolar power during the inter-war period
Who had the power?
Several countries have a highly influential role in the world or their world region and link together in world economic and political systems. From 1919 and 1939 it was an imperial era where we saw multipolar power operate. This saw European powers conquering land in the Americas, Asia and Africa where they built empires that directly controlled territories. Britain had the largest empire, reaching its peak in 1920 when it controlled 24% of land globally. There was no dominant power.
How did they gain power?
They gained power by colonising foreign countries in order to set base and hopefully further expand their colony. As countries expanded the reach of their colonies they were able to gain access to more resources along with a larger global influence. They spread their culture around the world allowing for a growth in soft power as people begin to adopt their way of life.
Why did they want the power?
They wanted to obtain a greater global influence. Through colonising areas they could not only exploit the land through obtaining their natural resources but also spread their culture gaining soft power. This was seen as , Britain highly populated their colonies with British military and British administrators. They introduced British legal systems, education systems and inventions such as the railways, language, sport and culture (as seen in India with cricket).
what is a multipolar world?
a world where several countries have a highly influential role in the world or their world region and link together in world economic and political systems
was the multipolar world stable and how did their power decline?
How stable was their power?
This was not stable. Due to the fact that there were several people with a highly influential role, it meant that there was a large conflict of opinions. With no one in control it meant that it created a power vacuum allowing the rise of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan with no country prepared to stop them. A multipolar power world is one of great conflict as there is no measures in containing power.
Why did their power decline?
Empires ended after the end of WW2. European countries gave independence to their colonies, because the costs of maintaining them was too high after WW2. The UK became aware that colonising countries was not morally correct. Anti-colonial movements and a desire for countries to become independent of their ‘mother’ country. Countries in Europe focused on rebuilding their own countries after the war.
explain the bipolar power that was present during the Cold War era with the USA and USSR
Who had the power?
From 1945-90 a bi-polar world dominated, made up of USA and USSR, this led to the formation of the Cold War era. It involves a tense stand-off between opposing powers who both had rapidly industrialised, ha access to raw materials, were self-sufficient and very strong militaries. The Americans and the British feared the permanent soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe.
How did they gain power?
The USA and USSR sought allies among other countries as part of the USA-led ‘West’ or USSR-led ‘East’. They didn’t directly fight but they were involved in ’proxy wars’ which involves when you pick a side in a war. They gained power through investing millions into their nuclear weapons and space technology in order to gain power against their component. The western capitalist ideologies vs the eastern communist ideologies. Indirect power became important and this was seen through the different military alliances, e.g. USA (NATO) and the USSR (Warsaw Pact)
Why did they want power?
They wanted power as they wanted to become a uni-polar power and the most powerful compared to its component. The power was mainly referred to their place in the nuclear arms race and the space race in which each country tried to gain superiority in the areas of nuclear weapons and space technology. They wanted to win the Space Race and Nuclear Arms Race.
was the bipolar power between the USA and USSR stable and how did it decline?
How stable was their power?
The Bipolar power seen in the Cold War era was one of great instability however a bipolar world is seen as “the most stable form of power distribution”. This is because if they work together and support each other’s views then they will be able to create a world with complete security and control. However, the instability of the Cold Era bipolar world was mainly due to their completely contrasting ideologies with the one supporting capitalist views and the other communist. Geopolitical instability and proxy war in many different parts of the world, such as the Korean peninsula and Vietnam. It was described as having high risk.
Why did their power decline?
Their power declined not only due to rebelling countries saying they didn’t like the idea of communism but also due to the space race becoming too expensive. This led to the rise in nuclear power and this is a power that many countries continue in aiming to conquer. Their power was bound to decline due to the completely opposing ideologies they held, their fight could not be sustained.
explain the hegemony of the USA
Who had the power?
The USA holds the role of holding a hegemony. The United States emerged from the war as the dominant economic, political and technological power. The use of the USA’s ‘soft power’ during this uni-polar era has been crucial in maintaining their hegemony.
How did they gain the power?
This has been done through the use of hard and soft power. It is clear that their development sin military and large economic power play a large role in obtaining this large amount of power however their use of soft power may be argued as the main component in obtaining this hegemony. Through Americanisation and Mcdonaldisation through the presence of US TNCs setting up across the world they have been able to successfully spread their culture globally, with many arguing this to being the greatest form of power.
Why did they want power?
They wanted power in order to be able to control the world economy and international trade. Through operating a hegemony they will have the greatest amount of power and hold financial economies against other countries. It became the postwar home of the United Nations, the IMF and the WB. This allowed them to have a favourable position in terms of trade agreements and so in terms of their economy they would be favoured. They dominated the markets.
how stable is the hegemonic power of the USA and what is their biggest threat?
How stable was their power?
One may argue that their power is stable due to their capitalist ideologies that you spread across the world. The Hegemonic stability theory indicates that ‘the international system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power or hegemon’. One may argue that their hegemon has become less table as their GDP becomes lower relative to others as there are growing economies with a considerable amount of GDP as seen in the BRIC countries. Moreover the rise in conflict with the Mexican border implies an increase in stability, they are seeing threats to their dominant power. CHINA IS THE NEW THREAT.
Why did their power decline?
The biggest threat to the US’ hegemony is the rise of China. The dominance of the USA will decline with China acting as its biggest rivalry. This is because China has access to a large amount of human resources, they have seen high rates of GDP growth at 6.1% that do not seem to slow down and they have been increasingly engaging with other parts of the world, notably by investing in Africa in terms of mineral resources. Moreover, the strength of China’s military highlights their hard power that acts as a threat to USA’s sustaining power.
what is a proxy war?
it is when you pick a side in a war, it is a war instigate by a major power which does not itself become involved, e.g. this was seen in the case of the Korean War which resulted in the division of Korea where US backed south Korea and the USSR backed North Korea
what is Neo-colonialism?
it refers to the soft power that is being used to control former colonies to ensure wealthy countries still get what they want
- some see it as a form of mutual benefit
- it tends to involve former colonies as they are more fragile and easier to manipulate
explain what the british empire relied on and what took place during this time along with china’s colonial ruling of tibet
- powerful navies to transport soldiers and equipment to areas of potential conquest
- large and advanced armed forces to conquer territory and then control it
- a fleet of merchant ships, protected by a navy to transport goods back to the home country
- people from the home country to act as the government and civil service to run the colonies
- attempts by the conquered people to rebel against the colonial power were brutally suppressed
- since 1950, china has effectively acted as a colonial ruler of Tibet, brutally suppressing during rebellions by tibetans in 1959 and 2008
explain the military influence and importance of indirect power during the Cold War era
indirect power become important as the USA and USSR sought allies among other countries as part of the USA-led ‘west’ or USSR-led ‘east’
- foreign aid as a way to ‘buy’ support from developing and emerging nations
- support for corrupt and undemocratic regimes in the developing world, in return for support for the superpower
- Russian military and political influence extended through eastern and Central Europe after WW2, they entered Germany in order to ensure strong bargaining position in post-war peace negotiations and also try to reduce Germany’s power which was split into military zones- the Russian zone became eastern Germany and the british/French/US zones became western Germany
- the USSR formed friendly relations with countries in eastern and central europe to protect it from future attacks from the west, it installed communist Govs in Poland, Hungary and east german, the border between western and Eastern Europe was called the iron curtain and it was heavily defended, at its extreme was the Berlin Wall
- those countries supporting the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact (military) and the council for mutual economic assistance (for economic strength) and those supporting the US formed NATO
explain the political and economic influence seen during the USSR and USA’s indirect control
political
- the Eastern European countries were were not directly ruled by Moscow but they were involved in economic planning and military operations
- NATO vs Warsaw pact
economic
- the USA were developing nuclear weapons but also increasing their economic influence through its Marshall plan which had an aim to rebuild war damage, promote economic development and prevent poverty that was seen as the root of communist influence
- US influence also grew through inward investment into Japan, Singapore and the Philippines, however most aid are focused on military rather than development aims
explain the cultural influence seen during the USSR and USA’s indirect control
- the Cold War was based on propaganda rather than military conflict
- the McCarthy trials were designed to expose to the American public any suspect with communist leanings, accusations reported on tv and radio
- Hollywood also produced films designed to generate suspicion of communists, portraying the US in a moral, freedom-fighting light
explain the rise of china as a potential rival to the USA’s hegemony?
- in 1998 the berlin wall fell, followed by east Germany’s communist gov, other Eastern European communist Govs also fell leaving the USA as the sole superpower in a uni-polar world.
- but china’s rapid economic growth and the USA’s dependance on china for manufactured goods has challenged the USA’s power
- china seeking global influence through investment in africa and is expanding its military
- however china still censors the internet and limits personal freedoms
explain 4 ways of in how indirect control particularly Neo-colonial control can be used to influence other countries and exert your power
1) AID- economic and political control
- the IMF and WB were set up to provide aid in the form of ‘structural adjustment programs’ to ensure countries reformed their policies to be pro-western
- much aid is also given in form of tied aid as seen in UK’s aid to India where the money had to be spent on british infrastructure and businesses
2) Military support-military control
- developing nations often rely on superpowers for military backing during times of civil war and uprising or they need to buy them weapons from e.g. USA giving Syrian rebels discounted price on guns, they want them to adopt capitalist views
3) cultural control- TNC investments
- cultural diffusion and westernisation have taken place, sport, music and the internet. many developing nations are reliant on TNCS to provide investment and jobs, otherwise they will go into extreme poverty, e.g. Coca Cola in Rajasthan
4) money lending
- developing countries often borrow money from developed ones and end up in a debtor-creditor relationship
- the UK continues to provide funding to commonwealth nations giving it ‘moral authority’
what is bi-polar power?
two opposing superpowers, with different ideologies but broadly equal in status
explain the G20
they are the richest 20 nations in the world, they meet to discuss global economies. this is a form of soft power.
- established in 1999, developed during the asian crisis where they discussed the potential downfall of Asia
- they are considered an informal forum, they act as a catalyst for new initiatives, carry large political weight
- emerging nations are funding their growth, trade and political relationships with emerging nations will help drive economic growth through the use of their cheap human and physical resources
- based on resolution not legislation, they commit to it but dont always implement it, people argue that the G20 favours the rich and increases financial inequalities
- they have evolved, before conversations were solely based on economics however now they also talk about climate change and education
what factors allow for fast growth in a nation?
- room for growth, opportunities for diversification
- good physical components, not landlocked
- open governments towards globalisation, murdle’s model of cumulative causation
- large working population
what are the opportunities for India?
- their cultural power
- good demographics
- gov investment into education plan, India spent lots on space exploration but majority of pop still living in desperate poverty
what is the prediction for the future growth of emerging powers?
- they will become increasingly important to global economic and political systems in the 21st century and the dominance of the USA will decline with China most likely to rival their hegemony
- other BRIC (Brazil, russia, India and china) and G20 countries could become increasingly powerful in the future
- Europes and the USA’s share of world GDP has been decline since about 1945 and 1990 respectively
- it is predicted emerging nations will demand more say in global organisations such as The UN
- have more decision making power in IGOs
- play a greater role in international peacekeeping missions and disaster response as their military capacity grows
explain how emerging countries are becoming increasingly important in global environment governance
the annual UN Climate Change conference
- the BRIC countries account for 42% of global carbon dioxide emissions, global environment governance agreements must involve these countries
- in the conference in 2015 the BRIC countries were involved in the agreement in a way they had not been when the 1997 Kyoto protocol was signed, which only involved developed countries
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the emerging nation of China
strengths:
- they are the main trading partner for more than 100 countries compared to half of that for the USA, accounts for 60% of GDP in BRIC countries (EC)
- geostrategic location for trade and defence, belt and road initiative aims o gain a geo-economic presence of central Asia’s heartland (EN)
- most populous country in the world, 4x pop of the USA, large workforce (D)
weaknesses:
- deeply polarised between ideals (republic vs democratic), authoritarian gov leads to lack of power (P)
- as much as they have expanded their military, its interests lie mainly in the Asia region (SCS), military beyond Asia is minor, little global military reach (M)
- the Chinese are suffering from an identity crisis, when traditional Chinese values meet global culture under the circumstance of globalisation, cultural erosion due to TNCs (C)
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the emerging power of India
strengths:
- lots of good alliances, democratic nation, US and India’s relationship, they both worry about china (P)
- high skilled knowledgeable economy, Pharmaceuticals and biotechnology defence, call centres, Bangalore (EC)
- Bollywood, food spread culturally (C)
weaknesses:
- need manufacturing, a lot of red tape has meant that attracting manufacturing has been difficult (EC)
- they need massive modernisation in their military equipment, sophisticated hardware needed (M)
- trade unions are getting bigger due to low pay in industries, political instability (D/P)
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the emerging power of Russia
strengths:
- large oil and gas reserves (EN,EC)
- high literacy rate at 99.73% and therefore high levels of educated workforce (D)
- they have a very strong leader and government leading to power (P)
weaknesses:
- limited access to navy due to lack of ports, naval and aircraft stock ageing, one aircraft carrier dates back to the soviet era (M)
- global warming more severe, 2.5x faster than the rest of the world (EN)
- russia is 9th largest economy but it is very dependant on oil and gas exports (produces half of its GDP), very vulnerable to price fluctuations (EC)
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the emerging power of Brazil
strengths:
- allies with the USA, bilateral relationship allowing for economic growth (P)
- most biologically diverse country in the world, harbouring 10-18% of the world’s total biota, amazon, supports global initiatives (EN)
- globalisation reputation as a football nation, famous for the Rio carnival, hosted 2-14 world cup and 2016 olympics (C)
weaknesses:
- relies on primary products for export rather than manufacturing, no added value but does product half of south America’s GDP (EC)
- deforestation and climate change, rainforest, large threat (EN)
- large amount of ethnic groups leading to cultural clash and conflict, politically less stable protests every year since 2013 (C+P)
explain how the characteristics needed for power have changed over time
As our society has developed and technology has advanced there has been a shift in the need for nuclear machinery, advanced technology, a large and educated workforce. I believe there is also an increased need for soft power now due to the increased competition with foreign markets. Exerting your influence through your TNCs, following the actions of countries such as USA
what are the positives of a uni, bi and multi polar world
unipolar world
- complete colonial power, the british empire was able to colonise countries all over the world
- most secure and stable world system, if managed correctly and not done in an exploitive way it will ensure complete security, everywhere adopts the same sustainable and opportunistic ideals
bipolar world
- it is seen as ‘the most stable form of power distribution’ and if the two powers work together and support each other’s views then they will be able to create a world with complete security and control
- leads to rapid innovation and development, competing with another country, the space race/cold war between USSR and USA
multipolar world
- from moving out of the bipolar world it allowed for many weaker states to exercise their strategic autonomy and multi-align themselves with multiple powerful states
- allows for the spread of culture allowing for a growth in soft power as people begin to adopt their way of life, this is argued to be the most essential form of power for long-term prosperity
how have the BRIC countries grown over time?
- they obtained more stable governments meaning that they have more plans in place for development, education and healthcare, seen through china
- they have put in more efforts for education and so they are obtaining a more qualified population, more attractive for investment
- they have become more involved in global trade, some are key trading partners for many countries through developments in manufacturing high-value goods, no longer having to depend on core regions to add value to their resources
summarise rostow’s model of development, indicating what is needed to move onto the next stage
Traditional society, pre-conditions for take off, take-off, drive to maturity, high mass consumption
Traditional society (Dem. Rep of Congo)- subsistence farming, unstable gov, no geopolitical relations, volatile currency, rely on IGOs to add value. NEED: investment in infrastructure, need stable gov to increase investment from charities (no corruption)
Pre-conditions for take off (Chad)- secondary rising, infrastructure developing, NEED: good health care to be able to work, make it more appealing for FDI through lowering taxes, deregulate markets, improve soft power
Take-off (Thailand)- high manufacturing, poor human rights, NEED: currently only making low-value goods (diversify), more smart power, better human rights
Drive to maturity (China)- big rise in TNCs and soft power, growth in inequality, NEED: increase in cultural influence through soft power, china need to adopt democratic views
High mass consumption- technological advancements, high middle class
what are the positives and negatives of rostow’s model?
Positives:
- shows how development, politics and the economy are all linked
- if they had the investment they are likely to grow
Negatives:
- doesn’t take into account that European development comes at the cost of other nations (colonialism)
- not a level playing field, doesn’t start at the same level
- doesn’t take into account geopolitical relations
summarise the world systems theory of development
- he claimed that the core regions drive the world economy, the western core now owns and consumes more than 25% of goods and services
- the peripheral regions rely on the core regions to exploit their raw materials, largely from colonialism where western countries assumed over countries rich in raw materials, unequal trade where core regions added value and therefore made profit from their goods
- he takes a macro-economic approach where all three areas are interconnected and that the global capitalism system still relies on some countries to remain poor to exploit
- explicitly shows the importance of migration
- implies that the semi-periphery are the most important as they drive and fuel growth, they are seeing the most growth, which is fuelled by the core
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the world systems theory of development
Strengths:
- holistic perspective allows for more abstract conclusions
- inclusion of concept of semi-periphery
Weaknesses:
- there are more causes for underdevelopment than just capitalism such as corruption and conflict
- he puts too much of an emphasis on economics and the dominance of capitalism
- core, semi periphery and periphery categories are too vague
what would you say is the most effective development model at explaining changing patterns of power?
Dependency model
- the peripheral countries are indeed currently dependant on the core countries for trade and are most often exploited by the core regions which further hinders their economic prosperity
what does the kondratiev cycle show?
- the global economy is very volatile, it has always been and will always be
- recovery is dependant on innovation, declines and then bounces back with innovation
- refers to cycles, lasting about 40-60 years, experienced by capitalist economies
- a kondratiev wave is referred to a long term economic cycle which is indicated by periods of evolution and self correction, brought about by technological innovation that results in a long period of prosperity
what is an import substitution economy?
autarkic development, substituted anything they needed by using what they produce, favouring your own producers
summarise frank’s dependency model
- argues that a relationship between developed and developing nations is one of dependency, both countries give and take
Core give: manufactured goods, aid, polluting industry and political and economic ideas
Peripheral give: political support, debt repayments, raw materials and brain drain - the core are also dependant on the peripheral countries for their resources, they need the resources to add value
- the core countries supply. Polluting industry, e.g. coca cola
- to escape this cycle the peripheral countries need to retain their primary products and invest in processing and manufacturing, thus adding value and employment
- the updated model shows semi-peripheral countries, BRIC countries
what are the strengths and weaknesses of frank’s dependency model?
Positives:
- simple and timeless, three categories of countries is true, UK add value to imported materials
- mentions politics, shows importance of alliances, rostow doesn’t show this
- acknowledges importance of aid, can demand up to 75% back
Negatives:
- doesn’t acknowledge migration
- only really acknowledges primary and secondary, e.g. India’s tertiary?
- natural disasters, lack of resources and conflict are things that limit development yet they are not mentioned here
how do the developed countries defavorise the developing nations
- they exploit their workforce and resources, as they become wealthier though they will no longer be able to do this
- neo-colonial mechanisms and a net transfer of wealth from developing to developed world are responsible
- tariffs are added to any processed imports, this imbalance in the terms of trade remains unfavourable to developing countries
- to escape this cycle, the developing countries must retain their primary products and invest in processing and manufacturing, thus adding value and employment
how do global superpowers use the world bank to promote free trade and capitalism
- its main role is to help capitalism function particularly through making loans to developing countries for development projects
- over 40% of the total votes lie in the hands of eight of the largest contributors thus enforcing a capitalist mentality in most of their decisions
- in 2016, the USA controlled 16.5% of World Bank votes, all decisions will be made to favour these capitalist countries, reduce trade restrictions in these countries
- the world bank gained a bad reptuation in 1970s and 80s for financing projects that were either environmentally damaging or meant that countries were unable to pay back the loan
- its main role is to help capitalism function- particularly by making loans to developing countries for development projects
How do global superpowers use the IMF to promote free trade and capitalism?
- the IMF is a fund that is used for loans to help those countries facing heavy debts thus helping to stabilise their economies
- the IMF reflects US and EU interests, they can obtain the political decisions that are the most favourable to their interests
- the EU nations collectively have 25% of the IMF’s votes and so their interest are closely tied with the IGO, rather than the interests of the indebted countries
- the IMF promotes capitalism, those who have invested more into the fund have a greater voting power, this is the USA, the top 10 members control over 60% of the IMF’s total voting rights
how do global superpowers use the WTO to promote free trade and capitalism?
- they have favoured the neo-colonialist tendencies of its rich members
- decision making is by mutual agreement but most bargaining favours the EU and the USA
- its aim is to free up global trade and reduce trade barriers by negotiating free trade agreements however these agreements often favour the global superpowers by supporting their industries
- the USA and the EU, as the US are an original member, therefore both of these powers have a ‘large voice’ in the IGO and can protect and advance their economic interests for their businesses and workers to help support growth of their economies.
- The WTO have failed to stop developed nations from dominating the IGO, as they have let them protect their own industries through subsidies, for example with the EU farmer being subsidised, so developing nations have lost out.
- The USA’s power also allows it to sway decision making in its direction, as they win 85% of cases brought and win many cases brought against them.
- Again, the EU and USA clearly combine their power to block policies that infringe on them and bring cases against China to try to diminish their power.
- China is a relatively new member within the WTO but their influence has grown and many other Asian nations vote in accordance with Chinese ideas, to help support trade within the East. However, they have further to go to develop their strength against the more powerful members
how do global superpowers use the WEF to promote free trade and capitalism?
- it is pro free-trade and pro-TNCs, this often favours the richer nations as you can only be accepted into the WEF by invitation, they allow the richest nations that undertake the most trade and have capitalist views, they need to be politically stable
- business CEOs, academics, political elite leaders and IGO representatives attend these meetings in Davos, they often have a very much capitalist view on the world and so the decisions made will favour their political ideologies
- gives superpowers more influence as TNCs can benefit from government policies such as low taxation
- it discusses ideas such as corruption and encourages governments to set up global links
- they work to encourage public-private co-operation and this will enable countries to form trade agreements and aid the expansion of emerging economies
explain what happened to Saudi Arabia in terms of their role in IGOs
- they have been shunned off the UN human rights board, Russia and china are becoming much more powerful in this, very corrupt
- the Saudi Arabian prince had gotten away with murder, lots of crimes, as much as it is legal in their country, this by no means supports the aim of the organisation
