Physical mocks Flashcards
what is water stress?
if a country’s renewable freshwater supply is between 1000 and 1700mcubed per person per year
what is water insecurity?
when present and future water supplies cannot be guaranteed
what is (physical) water scarcity?
if a country’s renewable freshwater supply falls to below 1000mcubed per person per year
which areas are experiencing water scarcity?
- areas along the sub-tropical ridge are seeing water scarcity
- saudi arabia, algeria and syria are experiencing absolute scarcity (less than 500 mcubed/person/day)
- 2025 predictions show that Southern Hemisphere will see a lot of economic water scarcity whilst the north will increase most no or little water scarcity or physical water scarcity
which areas are experiencing water stress?
- much of east africa and India are experiencing water stress
explain the growing mismatch between water supply and demand
- relates to the distribution of freshwater resources (water availability) and the distribution of the demand for water
- 12% of the world’s population consumes 85% of its water
- rapid population growth in areas where supplies are limited together with an uneven distribution of global supply and a deterioration in water quality means more people are facing water shortages
what are the 4 physical causes of water insecurity?
- salt water encroachment at the coast
- climate change is changing hydrological cycle
- ENSO cycles
- blocking sub-tropical ridge
explain salt water encroachment and the Florida case study
- physical process caused by humans directly and indirectly
- more water is being abstracted from aquifers near the ocean, as more is abstracted the salt water seeps into the ground and into the aquifer, slowly contaminating the freshwater supply
- e.g. FLORIDA where water demand is increasing due to increasing affluence meaning more swimming pools and more water is being abstracted from aquifers near the ocean
what are the 2 human causes of water insecurity?
- overabstraction from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers
- water contamination from agriculture, industrial and domestic pollution
explain two examples of chains of reasoning for water stress and insecurity
1) increasing pop and economic growth
2) low development levels
increasing pop and economic growth - increased demand for water - overabstraction of groundwater and surface stores - salt water intrusion at the coast - water stress and scarcity
low development levels - lack of investment into making freshwater available and affordable, damage to ecosystems, decline in water availability, water stress and security
what are the 4 main factors for the rising demand of water (explained)
1) population growth
- demand for water is growing twice as fast as pop growth
- increased urbanisation puts a threat on the availability of freshwater with more than half of the world living in urban areas
- by 2030, the urban pop in Asia and africa is set to double
2) rising living standards
- increase in middle class led to sharp increase in water use, swimming pools, washing machines and dishwashers
- changing consumption patterns such as increasing meat consumption and building bigger homes
3) economic development (agriculture and industrialisation)
- the OECD predict that global water demand for manufacturing would increase by 400% from 2000-2050
- where water is not well regulated, pollution could increase dramatically with industrial spillage and poor waste management
AGRICULTURE
- in some cases up to 90% of water used by a country is for agriculture, growing demand for food
- agricultural demands for freshwater are unsustainable through increasing pesticide and fertiliser pollution, depleting aquifers and increased salinity
- 20% of the world’s irrigated land now suffers from salinity
what are the three main pressures increasing the risk of water insecurity?
1) diminishing supply
- climate change and impacts
- deteriorating quality from pollution
- impact of competing users (upstream vs downstream)
2) rising demands
- pop growth
- economic development
3) competing demands from users (within basins)
- international issues
- upstream vs downstream
- HEP vs irrigation
explain the causes and patterns of physical scarcity
- this occurs when more than 75% of a country’s or region’s blue water (accessible liquid) flows are being used
- currently applies to 25% of the population
- qualifying countries include the Middle East and North Africa
explain the causes and patterns of economic scarcity
- occurs when the use of blue water sources is limited by lack of capital, technology and good governance
- estimated that 1 billion people are restricted from accessing blue water due to poverty
- this is seen in most areas of africa and parts of continental south east Asia
why does the price of water vary globally
- whether governments own or private companies own water supplies, in Bolivia water was privatised where an American TNC took control and this led to outrage, prices soared, mass conflict
- the initial costs involved, cost of infrastructure pipes means many rely on trees vendors (can be up to 100 times the cost than if the water were to be supplied to their home), charities such as WaterAid need to offer invaluable help, their programmes help to reduce the extent of economic water security
- governments can choose to tax water supplies or subsidise, in Denmark it is most expensive as government are trying to reduce consumption, canada subsidies for consumers, canada it is heavily subsidised by the gov and so water is 80% cheaper than in Germany where it is private.
- supply and demand
- colonial governments would install limited infrastructure and the IMF restricts gov spending on water and so now water provision is often controlled by the private sector
explain the water poverty index
the WPI uses five measures to indicate levels of water insecurity:
1) resources- the physical availability of surface and groundwater and its quality
2) access- the accessibility of safe water for human use, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use
3) capacity- the effectiveness of water management to ensure affordability
4) use- the use of water for different purposes, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use
5) environment- water management strategies to ensure ecological sustainability
each of the measures are scored out of 20 to give an overall score of up to 100
explain the water poverty index for the UK, china and the USA
UK- they have a very good WPI at 71, they score the best in terms of capacity at 17.8 meaning they are very efficient in terms of the water they use
China- they have a medium WPI at 56.6 with their use scoring the highest at 18, this could be down to their growing pop and middle class, they score the best in terms of resources at 7.1
USA- they have a a medium WPI at 58.5, their use is at 1.3 as they waste a lot of water, they are not efficient
explain the importance of water supply for human well-being (two chains of reasoning)
improvements in water, reduction in illnesses from dirty water (65% reduction in deaths from diarrhoea), improved health, access to working life and therefore reduced poverty
improvements in water, lower medical costs and fewer days off work, improved school attendance, improved education and career opportunities, reduced poverty
- water, particularly that polluted by lack of sanitation, is an effective medium for the breeding and transmission of diseases such as typhoid and cholera
- safe water is vital to human health particularly in the context of washing and food preparation, also productive breeding ground for disease vector such as parasitic worms and mosquitoes
- millennium development goals aimed to halve the number of people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015
- the WHO says ‘every dollar spent on improving sanitation generates an average economic benefit of US$7
this shows that water is very important for economic development, quality of life and escaping the cycle of poverty
explain the importance of water supply for economic development (industry, energy supply, agriculture)
agriculture
- agriculture dominates water use, more than twice the total withdrawn for industrial and domestic purposes
- in some countries 90% of water used in a country is for agriculture
- 20% of the world’s irrigated and of this most is pumped directly from aquifers and is leading to massive groundwater depletion , water situation is unsustainable
industry and energy
- just over 20% of all freshwater withdrawals are for industrial and energy production
- mounting concern of the growth of biofuels as the crops are very thirsty
- water pollution is a major problems associated with much of this industrial use of water
explain Madagascar’s dirty water
- contaminated drinking water has led to the country having one of the highest rates of stunting in the world
- stunted children don’t grow properly, physically and cognitively, this can therefore affect school and employment and therefore poverty
- 160 million children under 5 are stunted, half of children in Madagascar are stunted
- WaterAid having to intervene in order to guarantee sustainability and preventing stunting and malnutrition
what has the privatisation of water systems resulted in for developing nations?
in the 1980s the world bank and IMF gave loans to developing countries to privatise their water system to reduce costs but many have cancelled these projects as the water becomes unaffordable for a lot of people
explain what is happening in Bolivia to water
- 50% average increase in water rates for SEMAPA customers (water company) led to many residents becoming opposed to privatisation
- the smaller providers are given poorly constructed and deteriorating systems which have an estimated 35% of their water being lost to leaks
- those outside the grid are forced to pay 5 to 10 times more than SEMAPA consumers
explain what is happening in Canada to water
- current water charges are about 1/4 of european rates and 3/4 of American rates
- the rates in OECD nations are often not high enough to cover basic utility operations and maintenance costs
- almost 40% of Montreal’s water is lost each year due to leaky infrastructure cost estimated to repair at $4 billion
explain what is happening in denmark to water
- the highest prices for fresh water in the world as they believe that by setting high pries it will help the environment as they will appreciate its scarcity and true value, this leads to greater water conservation, water consumption has dropped dramatically however they have seen an economic strain as a result.
explain the importance of water supply for economic sustainability
- water is essential in the production of most goods and services including food and energy, needed to ensure economic sustainability
- industrial water supply must be reliable and predictable to support financially sustainable investment in economic activities, 400% water demand increase for manufacturing between 2000 and 2050
- agriculture or family run businesses depend on water for generating an income, water is important for reducing poverty through better health, increased poverty and time savings
- most growth in water demand is being seen in BRIC nations
- by 2050 food production will require 140% more water
explain the importance of water for environmental sustainability
- wetlands reduce floods, store water and provide economic benefits through fisheries and recreation, half are lost
- forested highlands essential for recharging aquifers and ensuring clean flows for agriculture and HEP, deforestation and urbanisation
- degraded ecosystems lose resilience leading to water quality degradation, e.g. Salton Sea in California, productive ecosystem which provides a food source for over 400 birds, since 2005 water levels have been dropping as evaporation exceeds inflow, salinity levels increasing
- due to high demand water goes to agriculture and some inflow consists contaminated runoff from fields
what are technological and attitudinal fixes?
technological fixes- either involve large scale hard engineering projects (top down) or small scale innovations and appropriate technology (bottom up)
attitudinal fixes- involves people changing their behaviour towards water use to conserve water
what are the 3 examples of hard engineering techno fix mega projects?
- the 3 gorges dam, china
- the south-north water transfer project, china
- Israel’s desalination project
explain the 3 gorges dam china and the positives and negatives
- built on the Yangtze River which flows west to east through south china
- concrete and steel dam 2.3km long, made of 510k tonnes of steel
- enables surplus water to build up and be diverted to northern china via the south-north transfer project
positives:
- the power generated by the 34 generators is equivalent to burning 25 million tons of crude oil or 50 million tons of coal
- designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improve water supply by regulating river flow, generate HEP for china’s economic growth
negatives:
- very expensive, $35 billion
- 632m squared of land flooded to form reservoir, displacing 1.3 million people from 1500 villages
- water quality affected by waste from industry, sewage and farms
- decomposing vegetation in the reservoir produces methane which is a strong greenhouse gas
explain the south-north water transfer project, china
- to provide water for Beijing region which has 35% of the population, 40% of the arable land but only 7% of water
- 3 routes will transfer 25 billion m cubed of water from the Yangtze River to northern china: western route to the yellow river, an eastern route via a series of lakes and a central route
- the cost is US$70 billion, due for completion by 2050
- Beijing has similar water scarcity to Saudi Arabia, just 100m cubed per person
positives: - will boost economic development in Beijing
- will reduce abstraction of groundwater (water tables dropped by 300m since the 70s)
negatives: - 345,000 people displaced as submerges 370km squared of land
- risks draining too much water from southern china which has also experienced water scarcity, creating conflict within china
- eastern route runs through heavy industry so is likely to become more polluted
- water supply might be too expensive for farmers to buy so they will continue to extracts groundwater
explain Israel’s desalination project and its pros and cons
- abstraction of sea water from the Mediterranean
- water is either evaporated to leave behind the salts that make seawater unusable or undergoes reverse osmosis where water is pushed through a membrane to separate it from the salts
- produces up to 600 tonnes of potable water per hour
positives:
- can provide a reliable supply for large settlements
- 5 plants opened in 2013 aiming to provide 70% of Israel’s domestic water supplies by 2030
- some plants are using solar power to run
negatives:
- each plant requires its own power station in order to boil the water, contributing to co2 emissions
- produces vast amounts of brine that needs to be released back into the sea or disposed of which can potentially harm ecosystems
explain briefly Sydney’s desalination project
- running at full capacity yet it supplies just 15% of sydney’s water needs
- only has minimal impacts on the environment
- globally there are 15,900 operational desalination plants producing about a million cubic metres of desalinated water
what are the 4 sections of the sustainability quadrant (briefly explained)
EQUITY
- does it negatively affect those downstream?
- fair accessibility and affordability for all
- not affecting everyones well-being
FUTURITY
- conservation of water supplies so they dont run out
- provides long term security
- economically viable practises
PUBLIC PARTICIPIATION
- involves communities in decision making and implementation
- appropriate technologies used so public can access
ENVIRONMENT
- protection of wetland ecosystems
- restoration of lost and damaged ecosystems
- carbon neutral, not polluting
- tipping points
what are the main aims of sustainable water management? give statistic of no. of irrigated fields in California and statistic on pipe leakage in Cairo and Israel
- minimise waste and pollution of water resources
- ensure that there is access to safe water for all people at an affordable price
- take into account the views of all water users
- guarantee an equity;e distribution of water within and between countries
- 38% of irrigated fields in California use drip
- pipe leakage in cairo is 50%
- pipe leakage in Israel is 9-10%
what are 5 sustainable water management strategies
1) smart irrigation- slow supply of constant water, no waste, gives the minimum amount of water necessary for high yield, it is highly monitored
2) virtual water- importing crops that have used water, instead of using large amounts of water to irrigate, you only use water for other uses, seen in very arid regions
3) rainwater harvesitng- where people collect the rain falling on the roof s of dwellings and store it in butts for various domestic purposes, such as flushing toilets and watering the garden
4) recycling water- recycling sewage water and purifying it to be able to drink
5) attitudinal fix, charges increase to reflect actual costs- controlling the price of water to make people waste less
explain what is happening in Uganda in terms of sustainable water management
- local builders trained in the construction of rainwater harvesting jars which are made from locally available materials and have a capacity of 1500 litres
- they collect rainfall from roofs and store water for dryer periods
- once constructed, the jars can provide a stable water source for many years
- organised by WaterAid that raises funds to improve access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene for the world’s poorest people
In Kitayita village, Uganda where 3000 people lack access to safe water
explain what is happening in Singapore to sustainable water management
- they have the cutting edge of new technologies to re-use grey water, NEWater is recycled water that is treated using disinfectant, meets 30% of the current needs
- leakages have been cut by 5%
- Singapore still need to import water, they have an agreement until 2061 to important water from Malaysia
- desalination of seawater, two plants now meet 25% of the water demand
- they have also invested into agro technology in order to diversify their water supply (water harvesting)
explain what is happening in Israel for sustainable water management
- due to their climate, natural geography and politics it has formed them to manage their water efficiently
- aim to transfer water from the sea of galilee to the centre of the country
they have done this through: - smart irrigation, water drips slowly into roots, saves 25-75% pumped water compared to food , organised by Netafim
- reducing agricultural consumption, importing water in food as visual water
- adopting stringent conservation techniques
- pricing water to discourage waste
- Netafim says their crops yield 15% more due to the few amounts of fertilisers needed and therefore lower chemical pollution, drip tech releases fewer GGs than irrigation
they acquire new supplies through: - importing 50 million tonnes fo water per year by ship from turkey (Manavgat Project)
- piping seawater from the Red Sea and mediterranean to new inland desalination plants
explain the restoring aquifers in Saudi arabia
- circular irrigation systems to grow enough wheat to feed itself and neighbours using water from its aquifers, levels fell in aquifers
- wheat farms have been abandoned to reduce demands upon aquifers supplying irrigation waters
how is Colorado’s IDBM successful?
- in 2012, the minute 139 plan helped to revive the delta and restore some normality
- beginning to improve as people make changes, e.g. people in Las Vegas use turf instead of grass
how is Colorado’s IDBM not successful?
- the rate of climate change is far greater than the IDBM’s ability to mitigate change
- irrigation still needs to be reduced and water recycling/smart irrigation should be implemented
- attitudes must change as Americans believe they have a right to water and don’t believe the views of climate change scientists should change their lifestyles
what is absolute water scarcity?
when renewable water supplies (from rivers, aquifers and lakes) become very low (less than 500mcubed per person per year). this leads to widespread restrictions.
what is economic water security?
when clean water is unaffordable even when its available
what is renewable water?
the total amount of a country’s water resources (internal and external), both surface water and groundwater, which is generated through the hydrological cycle (precipitation)
what is desalinisation?
it is the process by which dissolved solids in sea water are partially or completely removed to make it suitable for human use. recently there have been many technological advancements in the process of reverse osmosis in order to desalinise sea water
what is a drainage basin?
it is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries
what is the jet stream?
it is a current of rapidly moving air that is usually several thousand miles long and wide but is relatively thin
what is smart irrigation?
the process of applying controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, it is a highly monitored way of ensuring no waste
what does permeability mean?
a measure of the ability of soil, sediments and rock to transport water horizontally and vertically
what does pervious mean?
a surface that allows the percolation of water including the underlying soil
what does porous mean?
a surface that allows water to pass through it, such as sand
what is the sub tropical ridge?
it is a large belt of high pressure around 30º north and south and is made up of mainly calm winds, creates trade winds and the westerlies, area of descending air
what is groundwater?
also known as aquifers, it is water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock
what is beach morphology?
the shape of a beach including width and slope (profile) and other features such as berms
what are cliff profiles influenced by?
- geology, especially the resistance to erosion of the rock
- the dip of rock strata in relation to the coastline
explain joints
- (vertical cracks), these are fractures caused either by contraction as sediments dry out or by earth movements during uplift - they are fractures created without displacement and occur in most rocks, dividing rock strata up into blocks with a regular shape - jointing increases erosion rates by creating fissures which marine erosion processes such as HA can exploit example: in bantry bay, the limestone is heavily pointed, leading to more rapid fluvial and marine processes in adjacent sandstones
explain faults
- formed when he stress of pressure not which a rock is subjected, exceeds its internal strength (causing it to fracture). the faults then slip along fault planes. - it significantly increases erosion since faulted rocks are much more easily jointed - huge forces are involved in faulting and displacing them and therefore either side of the fault line, rocks are often heavily fractured example: in bantry bay in cork in the republic of Ireland there is a major fault which runs SW-NE down the centre of the bays. the limestone is weakened allowing rapid fluvial erosion
explain folds
- they are bends in rocks formed by pressure during tectonic activity which makes rocks buckle and crumple - the main two types are anticlines and synclines - folden rock is often more heavily fissured and jolted, meaning they are more easily eroded, also increases erosion by increasing angle of dip and causing joins through the stretching along anticline crests an compressed in syncline troughs
explain dips
- refers to the angle at which rock strata lie (horizontally, vertically, dipping towards the sea or dipping inland) - its a tectonic feature, sedimentary rocks deposited horizontally can be tilted by faulting and folding by tectonic forces
what is horizontal dipping?
a vertical or near-vertical profile, notches reflect weathering and small scale mass movement
what is a high angle of seaward dip
produces a sloping, low-angled profile with vulnerable rock layers, loosened by weathering
what is a low angle of seaward dip
produces a steep profile that may even exceed 90 degrees, creating areas of overhanging rock, vulnerable to rock falls
what is landward dipping strata
produces a steep profile that may even exceed 90 degrees, creating areas of overhanging rock, vulnerable to rock falls
what is a cliff profile?
the height and angle of a cliff face, plus its features such as wave cut notches or changes in slope areas
what are micro features?
- small-scale features such a scales and wave-cut notches which form part of a cliff profile - the location of these micro-features are often controlled by the location of faults and/or strata which have a high amount of joints and fissures
what is the relief of an area affected by?
the relief or height and slope of land is also affected by geology and geological structure. there is a direct relationship between rock type, lithology and cliff profiles
explain the different stages of a cliff profile
1) horizontal starat produce steep cliffs with clear bedding planes
2) rocks dip gently towards the sea with almost vertical joints, joints are opened by weathering and pressure release
3) steep drip towards the sea and rock slabs slide down the cliff along bedding planes
4) rocks dip inland producing a stable, steep cliff profile
what is lithology?
refers to the physical characteristics of the rock. igenous, metamorphic, sedimentary and unconsolidated rock each have different characteristics.
it also influences geological structure on ameso (medium scale) and micro scale (some types of rocks are more likely to have joints and bedding planes)
how does lithology affect resistance?
1) mineral composition
2) rock type
3) structure
how does mineral composition affect resistance?
- some rocks contain reactive minerals eaisly broken by chemical weathering, e.g. calcite in limestone
- other minerals are more inert that chemically weather more slowly
how does rock type affect resistance?
- sedimentary rocks are clastic (sediment particles compacted together) and these are often reactive and easily chemically weathered
- igneous rocks are crystalline with strong chemcial bonding
- rocky coasltines differ in resistance
how does structure affect resistance?
rocks with fissures or air spaces erode more easily
what are rates of recession influenced by?
it is influenced by bedrock lithology (I,S,M) and the geology
- how reactive minerals in the rock are when exposed to chemical weathering
- whether rocks are clastic (less) or crystalline (more resistant)
- the degree to which rocks have cracks, fractures and fissures
give examples of areas from the most resistantrock to the least resistant rock
most resistant: IGNEOUS- Land’s End, South Cornwall (granite)
resistant rock: METAMORPHIC- St Ives, Cornwall (slate)
resistant sedimentary rock: SEDIMENTARY- Blackers hole, south Purbeck, Dorset (Limestone)
least resistant rock: Holderness, NE Coast, (boulder clay)
explain igneous rocks
- their crystalline structure (interlocking cystals) means they are well connected and impermeable with few lines of weaknesses (resistant)
- these rock types create rocky coastlineswith steep profile cliffs
- erosion rates: 0.1-.0.3 cm/yr
- e.g. granite, basalt
- example: lands end, Cornwall (granite)
explain metamorphic rocks
- they are also well-connected and impermeable
- however they are often folded and faulted so have weaknesses
- these rock types create rocky coasltines with steep profile cliffs (depending on folding and dip) and erode slowly
- erosion rates: 0.5-1 cm/yr
- e.g. marble, slate, schist
- crystalline rocks are resistant to erosion
- example: St Ives, Cornwall (slate)
explain sedimentary rocks
- they are clastic meaning they are made up of cemented sediment particles rather than interlocking crystals
- formed in stratas (layers) with joints which provides weaknesses and makes limestone permeable along with other jointed sediemntary rocks whereas other ones are porous due to the presence of air spaces
- rocks that are younger erode faster than the others as they are softer and weaker, older sediment is buried deeper and is subject to more intense compaction with strongersedimentation- making them more resistant
- limestone erosion rates: 1-2cm/yr, chalk erosion rate: 1-100 cm/yr
- example: Old Harry, Purbeck, Dorset (chalk)
explain unconsolidated sediment
- they are the least resistant, they are not cemented together in anyway so are very vulnerable to erosion, fast recession rates
- can create slumped coastlines due to mudslides/landslides causing slumping
- the boulder clay of Holderness coast in Yorkshire retreats at a rate of 2-10 m p.a
- boulder clay erosion rates: 100-1000 cm/yr, sandstone rate: 10-100 cm/yr
what are the factors influencing the rate of recession?
- geology
- lithology
- weathering
- mass movement