Superpowers Flashcards
What is geopolitics?
politics influenced by geographical factors (especially international relations)
What are the 6 characteristics of superpowers in which they can be defined by?
- economic
- political
- military
- cultural
- demographic
- access to resources
How can superpowers be defined in terms of economic power?
- high GDP and levels of trade (USA GDP - $53,000, China - $6,000)
- heavy influence over global trade (USA gave out $33 billion in financial assistance)
- hard currency held in reserves by other countries (80% of all financial transactions in US$)
What is the USA’s GDP compared to China’s GDP, showing its economic strength as a superpower?
USA - $53,000
China - $6,000
How much did the USA give out in terms of financial assistance in global trade? (showing its economic strength as a superpower)
$33 billion
What percentage of financial transactions are in US$? (showing its economic strength as a superpower)
80% of all financial transactions
How can superpowers be defined in terms of political power?
- permanent seat on the UN security council (consists of 15 members, 5 of which are permanent e.g. the USA, UK, China, Russia, France, can veto global politics however no resolution was made in Iraq war 2003 and USA and UK went in anyway - showing power of national govs)
- many multi-lateral agreements (e.g. North American Free Trade Agreement between USA, Canada and Mexico)
How can the USA be used as an example of a superpower with political strength?
- has a permanent seat on the UN security council
- has multi-lateral agreements e.g. North American Free Trade Agreement between US, Canada and Mexico
How can superpowers be defined in terms of military power?
- high military expenditure (US spending 4-5x greater than China)
- largest amount of hardware and personnel incl. nuclear weapons (
- unparalleled intelligence networks
- exporters of technology (USA has 16 intelligence agencies)
How much is military spending in the USA (showing its military strength as a superpower)?
4-5 times greater than China
How many intelligence agencies does the USA have? (showing its military strength as a superpower)?
16
How can superpowers be defined in terms of cultural power?
- long standing tradition, rich cultural history / way of life voluntarily enjoyed by many around the world e.g. music, fashion
How can the USA and UK be used as an example of a superpower with cultural strength?
- 16/20 top universities globally
- Hollywood
- 413,000 visited Buckingham Palace in 2015
How can superpowers be defined in terms of demographic power?
- significant percentage of global population and attracts skilled migrants and other workers
How many people in he USA were born elsewhere? (showing its demographic strength as a superpower)?
45 million in USA born elsewhere
How much is China’s population? (showing its demographic strength as a superpower)?
1.3 billion
How can superpowers be defined in terms of its access to resources?
- being able to export and control supply of valuable commodities, or able to secure resources it needs
How many barrels of oil are in the USA (showing its strength as a superpower in terms of its access to resources)?
464 billion barrels
What is hard power?
the ability of a country or group of countries to exert military force or direct economic influence to make another country accept a situation or idea
What is soft power?
the ability of a country or group of countries to persuade other countries to agree to a situation/idea by making it attractive
In what ways can superpowers maintain their power?
- history
- culture
- diplomacy
- military power
- economic power
How can superpowers (Britain) maintain power through their history? (soft power)
- foreign students around the world attend british universities e.g. Oxford
- cultural relationships of British Empire live on through commonwealth
- aspects of British legal system modelled worldwide e.g. common-law legal approach
How can superpowers (Britain) maintain power through their culture? (soft power)
- BBC is a major international broadcaster
- English is most widely spoken language after Mandarin
- 2012 olympics in London reasserted the countrys capability to host international events, opening ceremony showcased UK contributions to the world
How can superpowers (Britain) maintain power through their diplomacy? (soft power)
- UK has one of the largest networks of embassies and high commissions
- influential in imposing economic sanctions e.g. on Russia following its involvement in Ukraine
- Henry Kissinger suggested UK to maintain crucial balances of power across Europe by supporting weaker countries against stronger ones
How can superpowers (the USA) maintain power through their military power? (hard power)
- USA exercised hard power by confronting the Taliban, leading to death of Osama bin Laden
- responded to Kuwait’s request of military support, subsequently removing Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq 2003
How can superpowers (the USA) maintain power through their economic power? (hard power)
- USA GDP per capita in 2015 was 4 times that of China despite having similar totals
- USA is the largest trading partner for many countries, exports high-value goods and global brands
- World Bank, World Trade Organisation etc are vital tools for spreading western influence economically
What is geo strategy?
geostrategy - a type of foreign policy, directed by geographical factors that inform, constrain and affect political/military planning
What does Halford Mackinder’s geo-strategic location theory argue?
- whoever controls Europe and Asia would control the world
- a “heartland” was identified from Eastern Europe to Russia - the centre of this was known as the “pivot area”
(- the “heartland” could shift geographically according to sea power) - whoever ruled the most strategic part of Europe would command the Heartland, in doing so they would command the “world island” (Europe and Russia), and whoever controlled this would control the world
(Russia would be this power however its borders and frozen coast made it vulnerable and limited trade)
(- the rise of the USA and China, and increase in time-space compression means this theory has been largely disregarded)
What does unipolarity mean?
unipolarity - the distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural, economic and military influence e.g. the USA was unipolar in the 1980s (this prevents conflict and so promotes stability - beneficial in geopolitical terms)
What is neo colonialism?
the use of investment, trade and culture to influence undependent countries instead of direct governance (soft power tactics) e.g. post-war British colonial control
How can neo-colonialism affect geopolitical stability?
- economically (IGOs e.g. WB, IMF build connections, aiming to become successful economies - creates stability by instilling FDI for TNCs to set up - TNCs control 70% of world trade, weakens stability by imposing western values)
- politically (IGOs e.g. UN security council incl UK, USA, France, Russia, China, supports groups enforcing democracy - created stability as countries work together, but imposes values that have led to conflict)
- Cultural (Americanisation e.g. Commonwealth protects cultural identities as 53 members state ‘all countries have a say’ no matter how small - creates stability as countries have same values but backlash of those in conflict with these values)
What is an example of Britain’s transition to neo-colonialism, from hard to soft power?
British Empire dismantled post-WW2 and replaced by voluntary organisation of former colonies called the Commonwealth e.g. 1947 India and Pakistan given independence
(- creates stability as societies are given more independence and individual power so tensions between these countries and Britain reduce (so rebellion and war becomes less likely as countries feel less dictated - however reduces stability as independence means likelihood to start conflicts may increase as they are no longer suppressed under direct British control (in more unipolar world) and Britain becomes more likely to be contested for global political dominance)
How can different patterns of power bring different levels of risk?
- USA vs USSR - Cold War began with tensions from Korean War 1950 incl Space Race 1957, Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 included nuclear warfare, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 1969 slowed the arms race and reduced tensions
- America may be moving towards global hegemony 1990s: grew 4% a year between 1992-1999, 1.7 million jobs added every year in this decade, household income grew 10% in 90s
- this position was hindered by 9/11 and subsequent war in Afghanistan/Iraq 2004 and financial crash 2008 - multipolar world?
- China dominance grew
- BRICS vs G20 (as mentioned below)
How do the BRICS countries influence the world?
- the only $1 trillion economies outside the OECD
- growth rates slowed since 2013
- China became ‘mega-trader’ larger than imperial Britain
- high military expenditure but still outnumbered by NATO
- large populations but ageing population limits consumerism
- 3/4 top polluters in BRICS, however leading the production of renewables e.g. solar panels in China
How does the G20 influence the world?
- minimal impact on financial markets as discussions are over long time periods
- money to IMF to tackle recession
- new members dont take commitments seriously
- sharing of info to limit tax evasion
- divided over military action in Syria, some countries engage in unilateral military action e.g. Saudi Arabia in Yemen (not agreed in G20)
- focus on economic growth (encourages private businesses to invest in infrastructure)
- ‘green stimulus package’ worth $1.1 trillion and commits to removing fossil fuels but no quantitative targets agreed
What are the 3 development theories?
- modernisation theory
- dependency theory
- world systems theory
What does the modernisation theory suggest?
- Rostow, 1960
- considers how some nations become powerful (ie explains growth of British Empire and USA)
- countries develop in 5 stages:
1. traditional society
2. conditions for takeoff (exports of raw materials, infrastructure, technology, education/social mobility, financial systems that allow global trade, strong governance/legal systems)
3. take off (industrialisation/primary-secondary)
4. drive to maturity (secondary-tertiary)
5. high mass consumption (post-consumer society)
What does the dependency theory suggest?
- Frank, 1971
- TNC investment in developing countries would lead to exploitation of skilled labour and raw materials, and create international debt - unequal relationship deemed ‘development of underdevelopment’ (underdeveloped countries dont have resources to resist exploitation)
- IGOs e.g. WTO allow this exploitation
- a revolutionary break would take place to allow developing countries a voice
What does the world systems theory suggest?
- Wallerstein, 1974
- considers change from a wider spatial perspective
- global market divides into 3 components in which countries compete politically/economically: developed core, semi-periphery, developing periphery,
- world economy moves in LT cycles e.g. global depressions follow changes in production every 50-60 years
- core countries use semi-pheriphery as cheap locations for manufacturing (e.g. 3 free trade zones in China), periphery provide raw materials for manufacturing in the semi-periphery but benefit least
- recognises countries may change in future e.g. China may move into core world
Which superpowers have acted against environmental degradation?
- 2014 USA agreed to reduce CO2 by 2025
- 2014 China agreed to reduce CO2 by 2030
- Russia use of Nanotechnology and energy efficiency laws, has surplus of carbon credits in the global emissions trading scheme
- EU push for global agreements on emission reduction e.g. legally binding changes at COP11 Climate Conference 2015
Which superpowers have contributed to environmental degradation?
- EU’s Common Agricultural Policy gives subsidies for farmers who grow food intensively causing problems like loss of hedgerows
- USA right resists gov intervention where as left argues for protection of people and environment
- China CO2 emissions at 7.95 metric tons per capita
- by 2007 USA emitted 28.8% of all historical emissions, compared to 9% in China
- Trump pulls out of Paris Climate Change Agreement 2017
- natural gas production in Russia incl Gazprom - partially state owned TNC
In what ways do superpowers cause environmental degradation?
- landscape scarring (opencast mining removes vegetation and scars landscape, use of chemicals contaminate groundwater, noise/air pollution e.g. 2015 Drakelands Pit, Devon, first new mine to open since 1969)
- built environment (coal used in power stations, car ownership increases oil consumption, industrial chimneys emit pollutants e.g. 250+ chinese cities saw acid rain in 2003)
- oil spills (2010 BP exploited Gulf of Mexico in which 450 million litres of oil escaped from undersea well head, damaging marine life and wildlife along coast of Mississippi, Delta)
- removal of forests (Brazil food production increased 26% 2002-2012, forests cleared and converted, beef exports increased 10x, 15,000 litres of water for 1kg beef - deforested area size of Belgium in 1990s)
- use of ‘rare earth’ elements (to make high-tech goods, found in presence of radioactive thorium/uranium, processing 1 tonne creates 2,000 tonnes of toxic waste e.g. Chinese village Baotou pumps 10 million tonnes of watewater into containment ponds where it seeps into groundwater supplies)
What are the barriers to environmental change?
- high expenditure on eco products
- aesthetics/renewables must be consumed in situ (less opportunity for profit)
- not a vote winner
- TNCs control 70% of global economic market
- consumerism
- ‘tragedy of the commons’ - self-interest when voting
- rise of middle class increases consumerism, those earning $10,000+
How is the relationship between developing countries and superpowers changing?
economic ties are being made between the two - e.g. Chinese investment into Africa such that it has become Africa’s largest trading partner
What opportunities does Chinese investment bring to Africa?
- potential to transform economies e.g. Botswana is one of Africa’s first middle income countries from Chinese influence of modern working practices incl factories/mines
- increase potential to produce own goods e.g. Botswana’s diamond industry increased
- infrastructure investment can be used by all, creates jobs and mobilises economy e.g. China funded 17 HEP projects since 2000 adding 6780mw electricity by 2013
What threats does Chinese investment bring to Africa?
- dependency increases - Chinese aid is tied to FDI, Africa becomes reliant on support
- poor governance creates one-sided agreements e.g. Ghana people dont see benefits
- cheap Chinese imports undercut local producers and force them out of business
- FDI brings only temporary employment, few LT in mines and oil fields - skilled/technical jobs filled by Chinese migrants - 200,000 in 2017
What is the impact of Chinese investment into Africa, on China?
- infrastructure investments ensure raw materials can be exported cheaply and efficiently e.g. Botswana’s diamond resources
- skilled/technical jobs filled by Chinese migrants - 200,000 in 2017
In what ways can global influence be contested, and tensions increase between countries?
- environmentally (over acquisition of resources)
- economically (over intellectual property and counterfeiting)
- politically (over territory/sphere of influences)
How can global influence be contested environmentally?
- global influence contested over acquisition of resources
- arctic circle has estimated 1/4 of undiscovered oil and natural gas and sees territorial boundary disputes
- increased demand of resources from increasing populations/middle class is causing tension
- ambiguity over ownership - many lay claim to Arctic e.g. Russia claimed Lomonsov Ridge (70 billion oil barrels) with flag in 2007 - Canada, USA, Norway dont recognise this claim - UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea states 5 countries have legal right to exploit the resources but another law says countries can exploit resources in 200m radius of their coast
- environmental concern e.g. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge put in place to protect Alaska from resource exploitation
How can global influence be contested economically?
- through intellectual property and counterfieting
- Global system of Intellectual Property since 1967 part of the UN, ensures intellectual property belongs to one country/company
- counterfeiting (production of plagiarised goods made to look like a particular brand) carried out by China, Taiwan etc - manufacturing has moved to countries where ip rights are poorly protected
- costs G20 countries $85 billion a year, pirated music, movies and software account for $75 billion - 2.5 million jobs lost in developed countries from loss of earnings
- attempts to limit problem e.g. 2011 Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement, lawsuits incl Gucci against prominent Chinese banks
How can global influence be contested politically?
- spheres of influence are contested, leading to tensions over territory
- China vs Japan over Islands in East China Sea - important fishing grounds with extensive gas/oil reserves, currently administered by Japan - East Sea Islands under US sovereignty since 1972 but China claims the islands with records from 1600s
- China established military presence in the South China Sea with 2 launch batteries for missiles on Woody Island - USA committed to defending Japan and Philippines, International Tribunal 2016 gave Philippines claims to South Sea and found China to be violating its sovereign rights
- Russia vs Eastern Europe - tensions increased following Accession 8 joining EU in 2004 (caused shift to west - humiliating) - Russia determined to reassert power e.g. Gazprom cut Ukraine supplies 2015, Nord Stream Pipeline 1,200km to Europe (shows political leverage and reliance by Europe), Russia wanted to claim Crimean peninsula back from Ukraine, would give Russia access to the Black Sea, resulting in annexation to Russia in 2014, through most internation govs still regard Crimea as integral part of Ukraine
What are the causes of instability in the Middle East? (6)
- religion (mostly Islamic but sects are in conflict e.g. Sunni, Shia)
- resources (short in water/farmland making territorial war likely)
- oil/gas (65% of crude oil exports originate in the region)
- governance (most countries are relatively new in current form, democracy weak or non-existent, no national identity)
- youth (youthful populations with high unemployment and low education, high potential for adults to become disaffected)
- history (international borders are often arbitrary ie drawn up by colonial powers and do not reflect actual geography of religious/cultural groups e.g. Palestine in Israel not given sovereignty)
What are the challenges for superpowers with regards to the Middle East?
- racial/ethnic diversity (increase in xenophobia, people become part of diaspora as not accepted by home country or new country)
- human rights (poor HR records in Middle East e.g. Saudi Arabia only recently allowed women to drive, causes conflict through trade with such countries)
- increase in terrorism (changes the way warfare is carried out as it becomes a transboundary issue e.g. British citizen carried out London attacks of 2004, wars based on perception e.g. ISIS exists across boundaries)
- proxy wars (difficult to estalbish motivations when supporting warfare e.g. 1970s US funded Myahideen Warriers in Afghanistan)
