Regenerating Places Flashcards
1
Q
How is regeneration defined?
A
the long-term upgrading of existing places or more drastic renewal schemes - often designed to tackle inequality and make places economically productive or socially acceptable e.g. regeneration of Gloucester Quays
2
Q
How can economic activity be classified?
A
- on industrial sectors
- on type of employment
3
Q
What are the different sectors of economic activity?
A
- primary - industry concerned with raw materials e.g. agriculture, forestry
- secondary - industry concerned with manufacturing and assembly process
- tertiary - industry concerned with commercial services that support production and distribution e.g. insurance, transport
- quaternary - industries providing
4
Q
How can different economies be classified?
A
- pre-industrial (majority primary)
- industrial (majority secondary)
- post-industrial (rise in tertiary and quaternary)
5
Q
How can economic activity be classified by type of employment?
A
- part-time/full-time
- temporary/permanent
- employed/self-employed
6
Q
Why are there concerns about temporary and self-employed workers?
A
subject to exploitation e.g. 3,000 migrant workers living illegally in Slough 2013
7
Q
Has the UK’s transition into a post-industrial economy been even?
A
no - some places have high unemployment e.g. Hartlepool at 30% in 2014, average salary in London at £39,000 in 2017 compared to £27,000 national average
8
Q
What does the Clarke-Fisher Model show?
A
shows the proportion of people employed in each sector and how this changes as an economy advances
9
Q
How much income did the richest 1% of the population receive in 2014?
A
the richest 1% of the population received 13% of all income
10
Q
How much do the top 10% of employees receive annually?
A
£53,000
11
Q
How much of the labour force are on zero-hour contracts?
A
2%
12
Q
How can can differences in economic activity be reflected?
A
differences in economic activity can be reflected through socio-economic indicators:
- health
- life expectancy
- education
13
Q
How does health reflect differences in economic activity?
A
- those working long hours in sectors (e.g. building/agriculture) or exposed to harmful chemicals have risk of poor health
- variations in income affect quality of housing and diet
14
Q
How does life expectancy reflect differences in economic activity?
A
- average life expectancy in UK is 77 for men and 81 for women
- gender, income, occupation and education, as well as lifestyle choices (diet and smoking) affect life expectancy
15
Q
How does education reflect differences in economic activity?
A
- educational provision is unequal across the UK
- outcome (exam success) is strongly linked to income levels
- in 2013, 31% of working class white children achieved 5+ GCSEs including English and Maths
- disadvantaged children may be reluctant to carry on into higher education
16
Q
What are the reasons as to why the function and demographic characteristics of a place can change over time?
A
- physical factors
- accessibility and connectedness
- historical development
- local and national planning
17
Q
How do physical factors cause the function of a place to change?
A
- e.g. Happisburgh in Norfolk, 250m of land lost in 250 years due to coastal erosion
- climate change creates unpredictable weather e.g. Tewkesbury prone to flooding, investment in flood defences e.g. Blackpool 2014-16
- changing landscapes mean towns have to adapt to the environment
- ecofriendly buildings mitigate against increased climate change
18
Q
How does accessibility and connectedness cause the function of a place to change?
A
- improved rail and motorway networks cause rural towns to be popular alternatives for those unable to afford high London prices - causing growth and development in smaller towns
- areas e.g. Crewe and Nuneaton now in decline as no longer important railway location due to increase in motorways and railway improvements
- new areas developed e.g. the “Garden City” in Ebbsfleet Valley to take advantage of faster train network around London
- increase in regional airports means more migration from abroad who populate these more rural areas allowing them to develop
- 2/3 of the UK now have fibre optics broadband including rural areas
19
Q
How does historical development cause the function of a place to change?
A
- some areas have changed slowly and their current lay out and characteristics reflect their history e.g. Totnes has deliberately introduced transition town projects to protect local history and culture, establishment of local currency (Totnes pound) has developed local businesses along butter milk walk
20
Q
How does local and national planning cause the function of a place to change?
A
- UK gov has struggled to tackle housing shortage so introduced the National Infrastructure plan in 2010 for towns e.g. Bicester as new “Garden Cities” with 13,000 new homes and a train station
- however rural villages risk being overrun by expansion of urban areas - e.g. growth of Milton Keynes has combined many villages e.g. Middletonn
21
Q
What demographic characteristics can change in a place?
A
- gentrification
- age structure
- ethnic composition
22
Q
What are the processes that cause demographic changes to a place? (+examples)
A
- studentification (e.g. Leeds, more uni students, more ethnically diverse, more unemployed/part-time)
- multiculturalism (e.g. Bradford, only 63.9% white british, younger age groups 90,800 16-24 year olds unemployed, ghettos and enclaves develop e.g. China Town)
- gentrification (e.g. Nottinghill, used to be one of worst slum areas in London then increased quality of living, however high inequality, working age families and migrants from West Indies post WW2)
- “Brain drain” (e.g. Cornwall, high elderly inward migration, young people moving out of the area, declining number of full-time jobs available, work available in tourism)
23
Q
How can changes in the function and demographics of a place be measured?
A
- employment trends
- demographic trends
- land use changes
- levels of deprivation (income/employment/health deprivation, crime, quality of living environment, abandoned/derelict land)
24
Q
What regional and national influences have shaped the characteristics of places
A
- the Northern Powerhouse 2015 (gov policy)
- HS2
- Garden Cities
25
How has the national influence of the Northern Powerhouse changed places?
- Northern Powerhouse 2015 gov initiative to boost economic growth in the North
- aim to create better transport links (attracting investment, FDI) - £60 billion of goods exported annually in the NP
- improve ports - 12 major foreign trading ports in the NP
- improve international gateways - 9 in the Northern Powerhouse)
- better health (£150 billion) and education (£45 billion on schools)
- attract skilled workers to the area e.g. 1/3 of UK apprenticeships are in the northern powerhouse
26
How has the national influence of HS2 changed places?
- high speed railway currently under construction aiming to link 8/10 of the UK's largest cities
- both north and south, covering 330 miles (lack of rail investment in north east has caused inequality, spending on infrastructure £2595 p.p. in London compared to £5 in north)
- trains will travel up to 400km/h
- UK productivity is expected to rise by £15 billion a year
- 50,000 jobs to be created in construction
- expected that 70% of jobs created to be out of London
- predicted costs at £105 billion
27
How has the national influence of Garden Cities changed places?
- in January 2017, gov announced support for 14 new garden villages
- self contained communities surrounded by greenbelts consisting of residences, industry and agriculture
- pledged to be "affordable", attractive environmentally
- people move into the attractive area, businesses invest in the area e.g. Welwyn Garden City attracted a strong commercial base with designated employment areas
- however infringe on greenbelt and may not be put in suitable places in terms of transport, housing need etc
28
How have international influences shaped areas of the UK?
- UK global connections (particularly at the time of the british empire) result in increased diversity
- recent increases in Eastern European workers in rural areas e.g. Boston, Lincolnshire (deemed least integrated town yet has highest proportion of immigrants than any other) due to Accession 8 countries joining the EU in 2004 - puts pressure on schools, affects attitudes of local students towards diversity, perception that unemployment has resulted from increased competition for jobs
29
How much of Boston's population is from Accession 8 countries?
10%
30
What is the average hourly wage in Boston?
£9.13
31
How many islamophobic tweets were sent in 2016?
7,000 islamophobic tweets sent every day in July 2016
32
What percentage of residents in Boston were born elsewhere in the EU?
13%
33
What is unemployment in Boston?
4.4%
34
What are the regional, national and international influences on Upton?
- regional influences (local festivals, local businesses, flooding, bus services)
- national influences (M50, M5, TNCs e.g. Co-op, Birmingham Enterprise Zone encourages investment through tax incentives)
- international influences (tourism, Bham international airport Spar, Boots, subject to EU legislation - farming/use of land, workforce etc)
35
What are the features of a successful place?
- low deprivation
- skills shortage
- high employment
- high property price
- inward migration
36
What is an example of a successful place?
- M4 Corridor
- West Berkshire +6.4% population (2001-2011)
- half Berkshire workers employed in knowledge-based, managerial and professional occupations - 70,000 more workers by 2020
- Slough, Reading, Bracknell home to major ICT companies e.g. microsoft
- property prices +40-50% in 10 years since 2005
- Heathrow airport
- historical sites e.g. Windsor Castle encourage tourism
37
What is an example of an unsuccessful place?
- Detroit
- greater competition from abroad from the use of free trade policies that offer little protection of domestic markets, coupled with environmental restrictions, labour regulations and a minimal wage - has made it difficult for the USA to compete
- this has led to dereliction in Detroit
- depopulation - has lost 25% of its population in last decade due to decline of the car manufacturing industry
- 1/3 of families live below the poverty line
- highest murder rate of any city - 45/100,000 in 2014
- no. of seats in US House of Representative for Michigan has decreased 19-14 as a result
38
What are the different priorities of regeneration for governments?
different priorities:
- in sink estates: (Hulme) education and employment e.g. 60% on income support, 81% have no car, 3,000 homes built and 400 refurbished, shopping areas etc
- in commuter towns: (West Berkshire) infrastructure, service provision, dormitory villages, aim to deliver 10,500 new homes mainly on brownfield land, Superfast Broadband Deployment Plan, (not concerned with unemployment)
- in gated communities: (Nordelta, Argentina) inequality, rich segregated from poor, high crime, discrimination, 10ft walls separating Nordelta from working-class Las Tunas has caused flooding such that part of wall demolished 2013, 30,000 in Nordelta, property price in gated community $413-4,574 compared to $290 outside
39
What is civic engagement?
- the ways in which people engage in their community in order to improve the quality of life for others or to shape their community's future e.g. voting, voluntary work, charity donation etc
40
How do levels of civic engagement vary?
```
IPSOS Mori Audit on those certain to vote:
- social grade:
professional classes (AB) 63%
low socioeconomic classes (DE) 38%
- age:
18-34 yr old 31%
55+ yr old 64%
- working status:
working 46%
not working 53%
(- difference in lived experience between gov and locals creates political apathy, feeling of powerlessness, 'Top Down Approach')
```
41
What were the EDL protests in 2013?
- extreme hatred toward minorities, anti-islamic
| - aim to encourage political exclusion
42
What are the factors increasing attachment to place?
- civic engagement
- length of stay (low income creates working-class longevity)
- how much time people spend there (e.g. dormitory villages)
43
What are the methods used to select an area for development? (research phase of regeneration)
- qualitative methods (local groups provide opinions/lived experience, considers different stakeholder views)
- quantitative methods (gov looks at national census of IMD, collect census data every 10 years e.g. Neighbourhood Statistics website makes this info available)
- media representation (incorporate representation and interpretation of place, e.g. author experiences viewed yo evaluate needs for regeneration e.g. Gossip Girl portrays NYC areas e.g. Brooklyn as poor)
44
What has been the role of the national government in managing regeneration?
- infrastructure investment
- migration policy
- international deregulation
- planning decisions (housing)
45
How have national governments managed regeneration/growth through infrastructure investment?
- The Infrastructure and Projects Authority - oversees LT infrastructure priorities and secures private investment
- e.g. HS2, airport development e.g. Heathrow T5
46
What are the arguments for T5?
- need to cope with rapid growth in air travel with 70% increase in Heathrow passenger numbers
- important in 'glocal hub' e.g. many business routes from Heathrow, incl Chennai and Bangalore - brings value to UK economy by creating feasible routes
- local economic value - would create 70,000 jobs and protect 114,000 local jobs, could generate £100 billion benefits nationally
- tourism relies on Heathrow - high-spending oversees visitors spend £10 million
47
How have national governments managed regeneration/growth through international migration?
- increases national GDP
- extra taxation and production
- both high and low skilled workers fill shortages
- immigrants tend to be younger which balances UK age structure
- e.g. Accession 8 2004, 2010 onwards conservative policies, Brexit ended free movement introducing new immigration system favouring the highly qualified
48
How have national governments managed regeneration/growth through international deregulation?
- deregulation since 1970s removed entry barriers, making FDI easier incl offshoring of international companies into UK and infrastructure investment e.g. European/US banks in London
- Banking/finance/business services create 30% of UK GDP by 2008 - double that in 1986
- overall industry in London worth £95 billion
- creates regeneration in former dockland areas in east London e.g. Canary Wharf
49
How have national governments managed regeneration/growth through planning policy/housing?
- 1918-1940: Labour-led increase in social housing
- 1980: Thatcher 'right to buy' scheme saw sale of 2 million council houses
- Current: 'help to buy equity loans' gov lends up to 20%, must have 5% deposit and mortgage of 75%, home must be a new build
- planning policy: National Planning Policy Framework allows national interests to override local groups, focuses on economic growth, with 'planning gains' if development will benefit local community e.g. T5 decision in 2001
50
What is the casestudy for planning laws?
Fracking in Lancashire - Cuadrilla has 8 licensed exploration sites, only 1 currently operational since 2016 Gov decision
- fracking (process of obtaining gas from shale rock by hydraulic fracturing, involving drilling into earth and high-pressure water mixture directed at rock to release gas
- caused 36 earth tremors, protest groups e.g. Lancaster Fights Fracking
51
What has been the role of the local government in regeneration?
- retail led - Cabot's Circus
- tourism - Leeds
- science parks - Cambridge Science Park
- London Olympics
52
What has been the role of local gov in Cabot's Circus?
- retail-led regeneration
- shopping centre in Bristol
- £500 million investment opened in 2008
- retail outlets, leisure and 250 apartments over 140,000m3
53
What has been the role of local gov in Leeds' tourism?
- 'UKs favourite city 2004'
- tourism supports 20,000 full time jobs
- visitors provide £735 million to local ecnomoy
- attractions e.g. Royal Armouries Museum
54
What has been the role of local gov in Cambridge Science Park?
- Cambridge Uni effort to use scientific expertise to increase wealth in the region
- opened with TNCs e.g. microsoft
- Oxford Science Park opened as price of housing was 11x average local earnings - put off academics from moving to Oxford
- therefore Uni took up role in local-decision making
- the science park investment led to further changes in town centre e.g. new £500 million shopping centre and second railway line to London, Oxford Airport saw first commercial flights in 2016
55
What has been the role of local gov in the London Olympics?
- London's 1st major park built in over a century
- sale of 9+ million tickets
- 380 companies employing 11,000 were forcibly moved under Olympic Delivery Authority
- locals displaced e.g. 450 tenants in Clays Lane
- 100,000 new jobs created incl 30,000 construction jobs
- £9.9bn boost in trade/investment
- 85% of worst air quality areas in London
56
What is the example of a rural regeneration scheme?
- Powys
- area focuses on agriculture/tourism - low contributors to economy, has skills shortage and rural decline
- led to EU funded scheme to encourage competitive business:
- Transition Towns e.g. Machynlleth with local currency and loyalty cards to encourage spending
- Carmarthenshire Community and Broadband Partnership
- 26,000 volunteers contributing £173 million to local economy
- Green Investment Bank makes £1 billion available for research/development
- 200 million for low carbon technology
57
What is rebranding?
changing the impression or image of an area such that it is more attractive to investors
58
What are the aims of rebranding?
- revive an outdated place image
- change a poor place image
- differentiate an area from others
- help create pride in the area
- promote rural areas
- attract new investment
- balance population structure
- diversify local economy
59
What is an example of rural rebranding?
- Haworth
- opened up Brontes parsonage
- £210,000 investment into Bronte branded buses
- 1st Fair-Trade Village 2002 - with Fair-Trade Way linking fair-trade villages in the area, taking visitors through countryside
- use of EU funds to diversify farms e.g. Skipbridge Farm is popular wedding venue
- 2005 twinned with Machu Picchu
- tourism adds £500 million to Bradford region
- 8.6 million day trips each year
- 13,500 jobs supported in retail/tourism
60
What is an example of urban rebranding?
- Belfast
- opened Titanic Quarter in 2009 as part of Tall Ships Festival
- multipurpose venue - 7500 townhouses/apartments housing 30,000
- 20,000 LT jobs created and 15,000 in construction
- 7 billion investment over 185 acres
- Cathedral Quarter received go-ahead in 2006, completed in 2011, £300 million regeneration of rundown city centre creating 2000 jobs
- Shankhill Road popular bus tours of areas affected by troubles
61
In what ways can the success of regeneration be assessed?
- economically (income rise, job generation, opportunities, whether outsiders take new jobs rather than locals, affordability of housing etc)
- socially (smaller inequality gap, reduction in derelict land, decrease in social deprivation, crime reduction, getting out of poverty trap)
- environmentally (reduced pollution, open/green space, brownfield sites used for housing, air quality/climate change, reduction in derelict land)
62
How can quality of the environment be measured in regeneration projects?
- IMD has a Living Environment Deprivation domain which measures quality of local environment incl quality of housing, insulation, heating, air quality, no of traffic accidents etc
- national environmental watchdogs/planners control levels of pollution and environmental quality
- Environmental Agency, Natural England, English Heritage all come under DEFRA (gov department that oversees environmental affairs)
63
Why do derelict buildings exist and what could these brownfield sites be used for?
- traditionally associated with manufacturing areas and redundant infrastructure
- Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) is a pressure group for greater use of derelict sites for new housing rather than building on greenfield sites
- 1 million new homes could be built om brownfield sites in England 2014
64
What has been the evidence for regeneration success in Haworth?
- 2011: Haworth unemployment at 3% compared to 6% in whole Bradford region
- those with GCSEs A-C at 20% compared to 15% in Bradford
- 35% own homes outright compared to 29% in Bradford
(however these are still low...health declined 71-35% Worth Valley 2001-2011)
65
What has been the evidence for regeneration success in Island Ward, Belfast?
- health in Island Ward increased 57-84% (2001-2011)
- 2011 full time employment at 81% compared to 61% in Belfast generally
- those with GCSEs A-C increased 47-52% (2001-2011)
66
Who are the stakeholders interested in regeneration?
- local gov
- national gov
- local businesses
- residents
67
What is a casestudy demonstrating how different stakeholders have different views in regeneration?
- North Antrim Coast - Bushmills Dunes Golf Club
- £100 million development for seaside gold course with 120 room hotel and lodges, 1 mile from World Heritage Site of Giants Causeway
- residents: takes away history of the area, traffic increase, eye-sore in AONB, NIMBYism
- local gov: endangers environment, money generate may not go to local economy, jobs for locals, attracts tourism
- local business - larger market from tourism
- national trust - more tourism so more pollution, construction damages environment
