Superpowers

Question 1

Explain the concept of a superpower

Answer 1

• Superpowers are states or organisations with a dominant position
  in the international system
• They have the ability to influence events in their own interest and
  project power on a worldwide scale to protect these interests
• At present, the only superpower is the United States - However,
  countries that may gain superpower status in the future include
  China, other BRICS (5 largest emerging economies), and the
  European Union.

Question 2

What are the two mechanisms used to maintain power

Answer 2

Soft and Hard Power

Question 3

How is power maintained through Soft Power

Answer 3

• Soft power is about culture and political ideology
• For this, media is vital for promoting the beliefs and messages of
  superpowers
• This causes the erosion of traditional cultures and ideologies –
  gradually persuades doubters that a particular action or view is in their
  interests

Question 4

Give an example of Soft Power

Answer 4

Hollywood, for example, allows the USA to export its culture in the form of film. Also exports soft power to maintain global influence through McDonaldisation and ‘Americanisation’ .

Question 5

How is power maintained through hard Power

Answer 5

• Military presence and force is often considered a form of hard power
• This includes large air, naval and land forces, nuclear weapons,
  military bases in foreign countries giving geographical reach, military
  alliances (e.g. NATO), diplomatic threats to use force if negotiations
  fail, and the use of force
• Superpowers use hard power mechanisms because they are the most
  obvious and threatening

Question 6

Give two examples of Hard Power

Answer 6

The USA has an enormous military reach around the world giving it more military power than any other nation. Its military are present on every continent except Antarctica, but the USA has kept a permanently manned scientific base at the south pole since 1957 and in 2003 opened a new US$150 million base, reinforcing its superpower credentials.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation military alliance provides the USA with allies in North America (Canada), Europe (UK, France, Italy and others) and the Middle East (Turkey). NATO was important during the Cold War period when the USSR was considered the USA’s superpower enemy.

Question 7

How is power maintained through actions that can be classed between Soft and Hard Power

Answer 7

• Aid and trade are considered to be between hard and soft power
• Countries can favour certain trade partners by reducing import tariffs
• Other forms of this power include trade blocs and alliances, providing
  allies with economic and technical assistance, using aid to influence
  policy or keep allies happy, and using economic sanctions against
  countries

Question 8

Give characteristics of Superpowers

Answer 8

• A superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy, to command
  vast economic potential and influence and present a universal
  ideology
• Superpowers have many common characteristics

 Economic wealth brings global influence, money with which to
develop infrastructure, and means with which to buy influence through
foreign aid

 Military power is often used as a threat to or a bargaining chip

 Strong core beliefs and values which are believed to be superior to
the beliefs of others

 Recourses are also required such as land, fuel, minerals and people

Question 9

Explain the USA as a superpower

Answer 9

• After the Second World War, the USA had a greatly enhanced status
  and power – despite not having an empire
• Unlike Europe, the USA did not suffer from wrecked infrastructure
• The USA encouraged the establishment of international institutions
  and international law – the UN headquarters is located in New York,
  while the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are
  based in Washington.
• The growth of the US military influence worldwide grew out of a
  number of doctrines

 Truman Doctrine of 1947 which committed the USA to support free
peoples threatened by communist takeover
 The Nixon Doctrine of 1947 which committed the USA to support free
peoples threatened by communist takeover
 The Reagan Doctrine of the 1980s which provided US arms and
training to groups seeking to overthrow Soviet-backed rulers

• The USA spends US$100 billion a year on military spending – and
  US$40 billion on military research which is twice what is spent on
  health, energy and environment combined – this has given it the world
  largest world’s largest and most technical advanced fleet of warplanes,
  ships, tanks and artillery systems.
• There are many interlocking strands in the USA’s global military
  presence, including overseas bases, ships and aircraft that allow the
  USA to apply force to any part of the globe, the supply of weapons and
  military training to a wide range of countries, and a network of listening
  posts which gather and disseminate vital information.
• USA accounts for half the international arms sales

Question 10

Explain Mackinder’s Heartland Theory

Answer 10

• Mackinder referred to the heartland as the core of Eurasia, and he
  considered all of Europe and Asia as the world island
• By controlling the ‘pivot’, the heartland could be controlled which
  would ultimately lead to global power
• Mackinder supposed it should be Russia who controlled because of
  their location and recourses but, since they had poor governance and
  many borders, they were considered weak
• Instead, Britain ruled the heartland because of its economic power,
  industrial revolution and military power
• At the time of his theory, he took into consideration world history only
  in the context of conflict between land and sea powers

Question 11

How has Britains power changed over time

Answer 11

• The British Empire once covered 25% of the worlds land area
• However, the cost of fighting two world wars and the damage of the
  British economy and infrastructure meant that it could no longer afford
  to fund activities and policies in its colonies.
• Moreover- after the first world war – there was a hunger for
  independence from British rule and the colonies became difficult to
  control
• The post-war period therefore marked a decline of the former British
  Empire and the independence of the former colonies

Question 12

What are three different types of world superpower dominance

Answer 12

 A uni-polar world in one dominated by one superpower
 A bi-polar world is one where two opposing superpowers exist
 A multi-power world is one with three or more superpowers 4

Question 13

What was the most recent example of a bi-polar world

Answer 13

• During the cold war, the USA challenged the USSR for global domination.
• This predominately involved a clash of cultures between capitalism and
  communism political ideologies.

Question 14

Explain the economic transformation of China

Answer 14

• Since 1978. The standard of living in China has tripled, and market
  reforms have been introduced gradually.
• A similar approach was later applied to the industrial sector.
• After Deng’s death in 1997, Jiang Zemin became the leader, and
  under his rule China saw major improvements in its diplomatic
  standing and economic strength, although there were growing
  disparities between rural and urban living standards.
• The Yangtze valley became part of the Asia-Pacific trade bloc.
• Developments in the Pearl River Delta Region have built upon Hong
  Kong’s success to create a dynamic business region in southern
  China.
• China’s demand for the raw materials of this economic boom had a
  major impact on world markets in oil, ore, metals, petrochemicals and
  machinery.

Question 15

How does GDP compare between the USA, the EU and China

Answer 15

In 2014, 46% of the global GDP was accounted for by the USA and the EU. Chinas economy in 2014, at US$10.3 trillion, represented only 13.3% of the global GDP

Question 16

Explain the hinderances and beneficiaries of current world powers that could influence whether they will achieve future superpower status

Answer 16

• The EU and Japan have ageing populations and are not likely to grow
  demographically; in turn, their economies will grow only slowly, if at all.
• The USA’s economic and population growth Is likely to be moderate
• China’s population is also ageing, but its manufacturing-based
  economy has huge potential as it shifts growth based on services and
  consumerism; this is also true of Brazil which, like China, has a
  growing middle class
• Other demographically large countries (Nigeria, India, Indonesia) are
  also undergoing growth which could rival the world’s existing large
  economies

Question 17

What are the BRIC nations

Answer 17

 Brazil, Russia, India and China were identified as a group of emerging
powers in 2001

 These five countries set up a formal association in 2009

Question 18

What is the G20

Answer 18

 The G20 major economies: this group formed in 1999 and meets
annually.
 It is made up of 19 countries including the EU and some potential
emerging powers such as Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, Saudi
Arabia and Turkey

Question 19

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Brazil as an emerging power

Answer 19

Strengths:
 Regional leader in Latin America
 Strong agricultural economy and exporter
 Energy independent in oil and biofuels
 Growing middle class and maturing consumer economy
 Culturally influential with 2014 world cup and 2016 Olympics

Weaknesses:
 Small military with only a regional intervention capacity
 Economy suffers from fluctuating trends
 Needs to control the destruction of its forests
 Education levels lag behind competitors
 Faces wide scale governmental corruption and high levels of
inequality
 High internal violence and crime rates

Question 20

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Russia as an emerging power

Answer 20

Strengths:
 A nuclear power with very large military capacity
 Huge oil and gas reserves which are a source of wealth
 Permanent seat on the UN Security Council

Weaknesses:
 An ageing and declining population, which is also unhealthy
 Extreme levels of inequality
 Economy is overly dependent on oil and gas
 Difficult diplomatic and geopolitical relationships between the EU and the USA

Question 21

What are the strengths and weaknesses of India as an emerging power

Answer 21

Strengths:
 A youthful population with large economic potential
 English is widely spoken and graduate education
 Nuclear armed

Weaknesses:
 Future energy recourse shortages, especially water and energy
 Poor transport and energy infrastructure
 Very high levels of poverty
 Poor political relations with its neighbours, especially Pakistan

Question 22

What are the strengths and weaknesses of China as an emerging power

Answer 22

Strengths:
 A highly educated, innovative population
 Soon to be world’s largest economy and leads in fields such as
renewable energy
 Military technology and reach is growing, and challenging the USA
 Modern infrastructure in terms of transport
 Huge population (1.39 billion) that means it has a strong domestic
market
 Population is also particularly wealthy which gives it unrivalled buying
power
 China continues to embrace globalisation while other countries seek a
protectionist policy
 Chinas One Belt and One Road initiative seeks to stimulate economic
growth across Asia by investing billions of dollars into building
ambitious amounts of infrastructure to connect China with the rest of
the world

Weaknesses:
 Will soon have major problems with an ageing population that is
mostly male
 Major pollution issues in terms of air and water quality
 Tense relationships with its neighbours in South East Asia
 Rising wages makes its economy increasingly high
 Relies on imported raw materials
 Plays a limited geopolitical role; not yet a leader on the global stage

Question 23

When can an emerging power be classified as a Superpower

Answer 23

When it can exert its spheres of influence on a Military, economic, cultural and political scale.

Question 24

Define Neo-colonialism

Answer 24

Is the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies.

Question 25

How can a Nation exert power through neo-colonial influence

Answer 25

Strategic alliances: military alliances between developing nations and superpowers make the developing nation dependant on military aid

Aid: development aid usually comes with strings attached, forcing the host country to agree to policies suggested by the donors

TNC investment: investment created jobs and wealth however this can be dependent on ‘friendly’ relationships with the TNCs source country

Terms of trade: low commodity export prices contrast with high prices for imported goods from developed countries, inhibiting development

Debt: developing countries that owe debt up being reliant on the donor; there are generally conditions

Question 26

What is Rostow’s theory of development

Answer 26

• Rostow argued that pre-industrial societies would develop very slowly
  until certain preconditions for economic take-off were met:

• Exports of raw materials to generate income
• Development of key infrastructure e.g. roads, ports, electricity
• Technology e.g. telephones, radio, television, becomes more
widespread
• Education, leading to increased social mobility
• Banking and financial systems, to allow place to take part in global
trade
• Governance and legal systems, to protect investors, property owners
and trade transactions

• Once these were in place, industrialisation and the growth of
  secondary industry would begin, along with increased urbanisation
• A country would rapidly become industrialised and wealth would
  increase
• HOWEVER, Rostow’s theory only really describes the process of
  economic change and growth. It does not help us to understand how
  some countries gain the political and cultural aspects of power
  needed to be a superpower

Question 27

What is the Dependency theory of development

Answer 27

• Despite interdependence, many developing African, Asian and Latin
  American nations existed in a state of dependency and
  underdevelopment
• Dependency, in the context of economic development, means that
  progress of developing country that is influences by economic, cultural
  and political forces that are controlled by developed countries
• Periphery countries provide a range of services to metropolitan
  countries including

 Cheap commodities, such as oil, copper, coffee and cocoa
 Labour in the form of migration, especially skilled migrants
 Market for manufactured goods and locations for investment, such as
mines and HEP dams

In this, developed countries control the development of developing nations by setting the prices paid for commodities, interfering in economies via the World Bank and IMF and using economic military aid to ‘buy’ the loyalty of satellite states

 Superpowers that control developing nations are gaining economic
wealth and power by exploiting them
 In turn, keeping these countries underdeveloped. Reduces the
number of potential of emerging powers
 Wealthy local elites, who own exporting/importing businesses and
have political connections, benefit from the dependency relationship
because they control the limited trade in goods and services, but the
wider population does not benefit

Question 28

What is the World Systems theory of development

Answer 28

• A weakness of the dependency theory is that it is static - the theory
  suggests that countries are stuck in a permanently underdeveloped
  state
• The rise of NIC nations since the 1980s suggests the world is more
  complex than a simple superpower core and underdeveloped
  periphery
• In the world systems theory, the world is divided into core, semi-
  periphery and periphery regions. Semi-periphery nations are broadly
  equivalent to the NICs that developed in the 1970s.
• The theory recognised that some countries could develop and gain
  power, showing wealth and power were fluid not static.
• However, world systems theory is more a description of the world than
  an explanation of it. It does not account for the rise of China and was
  written during the Cold War bi-polar era. Map showing the core, semi-
  periphery and periphery nations according to Wallerstein’s theory

Question 29

What are the key features of Free-Market capitalism

Answer 29

 Private ownership of property and possessions
 Private ownership of business
 Wages based on supply vs demand and skill levels
 The right to make profit and accumulate any quantity of wealth
 Buying and selling goods in a free market with limited restrictions
(otherwise known as free trade)
 E.g. USA, Canada, Japan and Western Europe

Question 30

What are Inter-governmental organisations (IGOs)

Answer 30

Regional or global organisations whose members are nation states.

They uphold treaties and international law, as well as allowing co-operation on issues such as trade, economic policy, human rights, conservation and military operations.

Question 31

Explain the purpose of the World Bank

Answer 31

• Formed in 1944
• 213 member countries
• Now committed to the alleviation of poverty. It is a vital source of financial
  and technical assistance to developing countries around the world. It is
  not a bank in the ordinary sense but a unique partnership to reduce
  poverty and support development.

Question 32

Explain the purpose of the World Trade Organization (WTO)

Answer 32

• Formed in 1995
• 161 member countries
• Is the only global organization dealing with the rules of trade between
  nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by
  the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The
  goal is to help producers of good and services, exporters and importers,
  to conduct their business

Question 33

Explain the purpose of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Answer 33

• Formed in 1948
• 188 member countries
• Aims to foster monetary co-operation, secure financial stability, facilitate
  economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world It seeks to
  improve the economies of member countries through data collection and
  analysis, monitoring economic performance and, where necessary,
  recommending self-correcting policies

Question 34

Explain the purpose of the World Economic Forum

Answer 34

• Formed in 1971
• A swiss non-profit organisation that promotes globalisation and free trade
  via its annual meeting at Davos, which brings together the global
  business and political elite.

Question 35

What are the two forms of TNC

Answer 35

 Publicly traded TNCs whose shares are owned by numerous
shareholders (usually other TNCs, banks and large financial
institutions such as pension funds around the world)
 State-owned TNCs that are majority or wholly owned by government

Question 36

How has the dominance of TNCs emerged in the global economy

Answer 36

 Their economies of scale mean they can outcompete smaller
companies and, in many cases, take them over
 Their banks balances and ability to borrow money to invest has
allowed them to take advantage of globalisation by investing in new
technology
 The move towards free-market capitalism and free trade has opened
up new markets, allowing them to expand

• Many would argue that TNCs have been the main beneficiaries of the
  post-1990 US dominance of the global economic system and free-
  market capitalism economy
• TNCs are driven to maximise profit by their shareholders, who benefit
  from these profits

Question 37

What has the cultural impact of TNCs been?

Answer 37

• Twelve of the top sixteen companies are from the USA, two from
  Germany and one each from South Korea and Japan
• Ten of these top sixteen brands are involved in ICT and
  communications, three are car makers and two are food and drink
• Many of the brands can be recognised instantly from the colour and
  shape of their logos, which are sometimes free of words, for example
  Apple

The dominance of the USA, since 1990, and the economic power of the EU, has led some people to identify the increasingly cultural globalisation referred as ‘westernisation’ that involves the arts, food and media.

 A culture of consumerism
 A culture of capitalism
 English as the dominant language
 A culture that cherry picks and adapts different cultures

Question 38

Give examples of the cultural impact of TNCs

Answer 38

-This global culture is most often exemplified by the ubiquity of consumer icons such as Coca-Cola and McDonalds.

• In the case of McDonalds, it has 36,000 restaurants worldwide which
  serves 65 million people every day.
• In India, McDonald’s has had to adapt its menu to suit its local tastes and
  the Hindu Muslim regions, while still keeping central to its western culture

Question 39

Define Brand Value

Answer 39

The value of a brand measured using metrics such as market share, customer opinion of the brand and brand loyalty

Question 40

How do Intellectual property laws protect the development of new products

Answer 40

 Patents, for new inventions, technologies and systems
 Copyright for artistic works, such as music books and artworks
 Trademarks to protect designs, such as logos

• A patent gives its owner the right to exclude others from making,
  using, selling, and importing an invention for a limited period of time,
  usually twenty years
• Allows a company to exert its influence

Question 41

Explain the role of the United Nations in maintaining international peace and security

Answer 41

• Most influential and best-known international alliance in the world
• It was established in 1945 and included 193-member nations by 2012
• 26 countries signed the founding Charter of the UN, which aims to
  save succeeding generations from the scourge of war and to reaffirm
  faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity of the human person,
  in the equal rights of men and women
• The UN provides a forum where member nations can express
  opinions and grievances, suggest actions to resolve tensions and
  disputes or ask for or offer assistance to other nations
• Split into two main bodies: the UN General Assembly and the UN
  security Council

Question 42

Explain the importance of the UN General Assembly

Answer 42

• Is the core of the UN
• All members appoint an ambassador to represent their country at the
assembly
• These ambassadors discuss international issues and try to resolve
disputes by political means
• At each assembly each member has one vote which overcomes
differences in wealth, power and prestige of nations

Question 43

Explain the importance of the UN Security Council

Answer 43

• The UN Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining
international peace and security
• The council has five permanent members (UK, USA, Russia, China and
France)
• Whereas all other UN organisations can only make recommendations
to governments to take action of some kind, the Security Council has
authority to direct member nations to action
• The Security Council can employ a number of measures to control
conflict (e.g. economic sanctions such as trade restrictions)

Question 44

Explain the significance of NATO

Answer 44

• Military alliances are a key element of superpower status
• Despite the USAs vast firepower, NATO is important to it because of
  the ‘strength in numbers’ an alliance brings
• NATO was founded in 1949 to counter the rise of communist power in
  what was then the USSR – has 28-member states that collectively
  account for most of the world’s firepower including nuclear weapons
• NATO has a mutual defence agreement, meaning if one member is
  threatened, all others come to its AID
• Since the collapse of communism, the member nations of the former
  Warsaw Pact have been seeking to join NATO – they view it as a
  means by which they can gain access to Western democracy
• Belonging to NATO will help protect them from possible conflict with
  Russia

Question 45

Explain the significance of the G8

Answer 45

• G8 countries are Japan, France, Italy, UK, Germany, Canada and
  Russia
• The group formed in 1975 is an informal meeting of the leaders of the
  western, capitalist economies, largely in response to the 1973 oil crisis
  and the recession that followed
• The leaders are each meeting represent 65% of global wealth, 95% of
  nuclear weapons and 75% of global military spending
• G8 nations make up only 15% of the world population
• By 2005 the G8 had shifted to the G14 and nowadays the G20 is
  becoming the key informal decision-making forum, reflecting the
  importance of emerging powers in trade and a fundamental shift in
  power towards the emerging economies, especially in Asia

Question 46

Give three examples where the role of International Organizations played a key role in a Global Crisis

Answer 46

• Iran’s nuclear programme
• Bosnian War 1992-95
• Haiti earthquake humanitarian relief 2010

Question 47

Iranian Nuclear Programme

International organization response to global crisis case study

Answer 47

The USA and Israel in particularly fear a nuclear-armed Iran would destabilise the already unstable Middle East

o The USA first applied sanctions to Iran in 1995
o UN sanctions began in 2006 and included an arms embargo
o Sanctions were placed on Iran’s crucial oil exports in 2012

Iran’s economic situation slowly deteriorated as it was denied oil export revenue and found importing technical equipment increasing difficult. Iran was forced to agree to end its nuclear weapons programme in 2015 and sanctions in 2016

Question 48

Bosnian War 1992-95

International organization response to global crisis case study

Answer 48

The Bosnian War resulted from post-Cold break-up of Yugoslavia; it was Europe’s first ground war since 1945. A toxic mix of ethnic, religious and nationalist divisions led to a war that involved genocide, mass rape and numerous other war crimes.

o A UN resolution led to a NATO-enforced no-fly zone, led by US jets
o UN peacekeepers tried to establish safe zones in the conflict area, but
this proved difficult to achieve
o Eventually, NATO air-strikes against the Bosnian Serbs forced an end
to the conflict

The NATO campaign was deemed crucial in the signing of the 1995 Dayton Accord which ended the war

Question 49

Haiti earthquake humanitarian relief, 2010

International organization response to global crisis case study

Answer 49

The devastating magnitude 7.0 earthquake on 12 January 2010 in Haiti destroyed 70% of buildings in the capital city, Port-au-Prince, and created a humanitarian disaster of huge proportions

A huge relief operation began, led by the UN and involving numerous countries and NGOs. US military logistics and technical assistance was crucial. Within six days:

• The US Air Force restored air traffic control to Port-au-Prince’s airport
to allow relief flights in.
• US coastguard helicopters began relief flights
• The aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson and helicopter carrier USS Bataan
arrived to assist with rescue, food and water aid
• 1600 US marines arrived by sea to provide humanitarian aid

Question 50

Explain the role of Economic Alliances in strengthening interdependance between nations

Answer 50

• Broadly, those countries that have free-trade agreements between
  them are also members of military alliances
• This creates a powerful axis of economic and military security that
  reflects the ideology of each bloc

How do these trade blocs encourage economic interdependence?

• Free of import/export taxes and tariffs, TNCs can operate as truly
international entities, moving physical, human and financial recourses
anywhere within the bloc
• Workers find it easier to move between countries, especially when
freedom of movement is part of the agreement, as it is within the EU
• The revenues and profits of TNCs, and the smaller businesses that
supply them, are highest when the economic health of the whole
trade bloc is good

Question 51

Give two examples of global economic alliances

Answer 51

• The signing of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership
  (TTIP) could create a vast free-trade zone covering the EU and USA,
  with a population of over 800 million
• The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded in
  1967 and includes Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,
  Thailand, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam – it has
  economic, cultural, security and political aims

Question 52

What are the four pinnacles of Global Security

Answer 52

Economic - e.g IMF, WTO
Social - e.g. UN agencies, WHO
Political - UN Security Council + peacekeeper forces
Judicial - International Court of Justice & International Criminal Court

Question 53

What issues are causing the gradual instability of the United Nations

Answer 53

o Its leaders – the USA, UK and France – are not as military powerful as
they were

o There is strong case for emerging powers – India and Brazil especially
– to have more of a say in world affairs

o Currently, neither Africa nor Latin America has a seat at the top table
of world security decision-making despite a combined population of
1.5 billion

o The global financial crisis of 2007-2008, the worst since the Great
Depression – strained the IMF and global financial systems to the limit
and made many economists wonder if there was a ‘better way’

o The ongoing threats of global terrorism from Islamic State and the
Taliban, among others, might suggest that global security co-operation
is not all it could be

Question 54

Why do superpowers and emerging powers have very large recourse footprints

Answer 54

• Superpowers have very large recourse footprints – maintaining a
  large economy, a military with global reach and a wealthy population
  requires energy, mineral, land and water recourses
• China accounts for half of the world’s coal consumption but only has
  10% of the world’s population – China is the world’s largest producer
  of iron ore, used to make steel

Question 55

How has high recourse consumption of superpowers and emerging powers generated environmental issues?

Answer 55

• Urban air quality is low in emerging power cities due to coal-burning
cities, the continued use of open stoves (India) and dramatic increases
in car use. This has major health implications: air quality in Beijing,
Shanghai Delhi and Mumbai regularly exceeds WHO safe limits

• Demands for fossil fuels, mineral and food imports, plus manufactured
goods exports, account for most of the World’s CO2 emissions from
shipping

• Deforestation and land degradation are issues in some emerging
powers as they seek to convert more land into farmland, continue to
urbanise, increase demand for water and increase the use of
chemicals in farming to increase yields.

Question 56

Why does the willingness to reduce Carbon Emissions vary among Global Powers

Answer 56

• The USA for instance refused to sign the Kyoto protocol whereas the
  EU have set regulation on packaging and recourse consumption,
  trying to control their carbon footprint
• Emerging economies have a number of excuses to defend their large
  and accelerating emissions. Many believe they should be allowed to
  industrialise and develop in the same way that the EU, North America
  and Japan did – emerging economies also argue they are not to
  blame – between 1850 to 1970 the USA emitted 28.8% of all
  cumulative historical emissions while China emitted 9%
• Yet this argument is limited as there is a huge range of technology
  and energy alternatives

Question 57

How will the emergence of a global middle class impact recourse consumption

Answer 57

-	Globally, the middle class are defined as people with discretionary 
        income – they can spend this on consumer goods and holidays – they 
        can be defined as people with an annual income of over US$10,000

• Middle-class consumption has a wide range of implications. If, by
  2030, the average Chinese consumer has a similar income to a
  consumer in the EU or USA, it would mean:
• 1 billion cars on China’s roads
• 1350 million tonnes of cereals consumed each year
• 180-million tonnes of meat consumed each year

Question 58

Explain the four recourse pressures that will result from rising consumption

Answer 58

Food:
o Pressures on food supply in emerging powers will result from the nutrition transition and demands for new food types
o Land once used for staple food grains will be converted to produce meat and dairy products

Water:
o Some emerging powers already have water supply issues, notably
India
o India’s situation is likely to be critical by 2030, with 60% of areas
racing water scarcity
o Water supply in China, Indonesia and Nigeria could be problematic by
2030, especially in urban areas

Energy:
o Global oil demand was about 95 million barrels per day in 2015
o By 2030 this is likely to rise, along with coal and gas demand by 30%
o Meeting this demand may lead to price rises and/or supply shortages

Recourses:
o Demand for rare earth minerals – used in LCD screens and numerous
other hi-tech gadgets – could increase prices
o The demand for lithium-based batteries is very high and could be hard
to meet in the future

Question 59

What impacts will recourse scarcity have?

Answer 59

Tensions can result from competition over physical recourses such as oil and gas

Question 60

Arctic oil and gas

conflict case study 1

Answer 60

• The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimates 30% of the world’s
  undiscovered gas and 13% of the worlds undiscovered recourses can
  be found in the Arctic ocean
• This amounts to 90-100 million barrels of oil, worth billions of dollars

 Three of the parties in dispute have nuclear weapons (Russia, USA
and EU)
 In 2007, the Russians used a submarine to place a Russian flag on the
seabed at the North Pole, which inflamed tensions
 Since then the number of ‘scientific’ expeditions to the arctic have
increased, as countries seek to have a greater presence in the area
 Both Russia and Canada have ‘Arctic forces’ to protect their interests

• Tensions are likely to rise further as global warming makes the Arctic i
  increasingly accessible to shipping for longer periods of the year, and
  oil and mineral exploitation becomes easier

Question 61

Russia’s western border

conflict case study 2

Answer 61

• Many far eastern nations have areas where the Russian language is
  widely spoken – Russia considers these areas as its sphere of
  influence
• Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991. Independence of
  former Soviet republics, several newly independent countries in the
  sphere have raised the possibility of joining the EU and/or NATO
• However, Russia has reacted negatively to this, asserting its belief that
  these regions should remain under the sphere of influence of Russia.

 In 2008, Russia effectively annexed the Georgian regions of South
Ossetia and Abkhazia after a short war and, as of 2016, continues to
occupy them
 In 2014, seemingly in response to Ukrainian moves to join the EU
and/or NATO, Russia annexed the Ukrainian region of Crimea,
significantly raising political and military tensions in Europe – EU and
US economic sanctions followed, and isolated Russia economically,
but also affected EU exporters who can no longer sell to Russia
 The open conflict in Crimea, eastern Ukraine and Georgia has led to
the forced displacement of thousands of people, as well as hundreds
of deaths.

Question 62

How have intellectual property rights become a source of tension among Global Powers and TNCs

Answer 62

• A possible source of tension is over intellectual property rights
• A global system of IP has been run since 1967 by the World
  Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which is part of the UN
• It ensures TNCs, individuals and government agencies can protect
  new inventions, trademarks, artistic works and trade secrets from use
  by others.
• However, The global system of intellectual property rights can be
  undermined by counterfeiting, which involves producing products that
  closely resemble the copyrighted product – many Western car
  companies, including BMW, Mercedes Benz and even Rolls0Royce,
  have seen Chinese companies make copies of their models
• This strains trade relations and TNC investment – many are reluctant
  to invest in China, knowing that their profits are likely to be reduced
  by counterfeiting – the possibility of trade agreements being made is
  limited if one side believes the other will not ‘play by the rules’

Question 63

What are the for’s and against’s towards Intellectual property rights

Answer 63

 Without IP, innovations and ideas can be stolen and used by others
which would be a huge disincentive to innovate and invent
 The costs of developing new medicines or communication
technologies could not be recouped through selling products if others
could simply copy the idea

• Yet, on the other hand, IP has been criticised

 IP requires the users of a product to pay royalty fees to the inventor,
which is the cost to developing countries.
 IP holders do not have a duty to make a new invention available: in
theory, at least, they could prevent a new invention being made

Question 64

Define Sphere of Influence

Answer 64

A physical region over which a country believes it economic, military, cultural or political rights.

Spheres of influence extend beyond the borders of the country and represent a region where the country believes it has the right to influence the policies of other countries

Question 65

What is the significance of a nations sphere of infuence

Answer 65

• Political spheres of influence can be contested when multiple
  interests overlap. This produces tension over territorial and physical
  resources. In some cases, tensions can lead to open conflict which
  has implications for people and the physical environment.
• In some cases, these are simply disputed borders.
• Nuclear-armed Pakistan and India have long-running territorial
  dispute over the ownership of Kashmir, further complicated by
  Chinese occupation of nearby areas, which is claimed by India

Question 66

South China Sea (conflict case study 3)

Answer 66

• China has overly stated its sphere of influence in South East Asia in a
  policy referred to as the Island chain strategy
• China is actively pursuing a policy of controlling the Ocean from its
  coast to the First Island Chain - claims 90% of South
  China sea
• Rocks, Island and areas of continental shelf in the South and East
  China seas are disputed
• The largest naval presence in the area is currently the USA, due to its
  close allies Japan, South Korea and the Philippines
• The islands could be economically important as they may harbour oil
  and gas reserves - 11 billion barrels of oil
• busiest shipping route in world
• China’s recent strategy in the area has been to occupy deserted
  islands and to artificially build larger, or even, new islands

 In 2014, China began constructing an airport on reclaimed land on
Fiery Cross Reef
 In 2015, China began the construction of a port and possibly an airport
on Mischief Reef
 In 2015, Subi Reef appeared to be being developed into a Chinese
military base

• Chinas actions have implications for the USA and other countries in
  the region – arguably, island building is a direct attack on the UN law
  of the sea – Chinas actions also challenge US naval and air hegemony
  in the area

Question 67

Why have existing powers such as the USA and the EU been faced with accusations of unfair relationships

Answer 67

 Neo-colonialism: superpowers pulling the economic and political
strings of developing countries, despite not ruling them directly as
during the colonial/imperial era

 Unfair terms of trade: cheap commodity exports for the developing
world set against expensive manufactured imports from developed
countries

 Drain brain of skilled workers: this occurs from developing countries
which boosts developed world economies but does nothing to
support developing countries

 Local wealth elites: these control imports and exports in developing
countries, benefiting from the neo-colonial relationship but having no
interest in changing it

Question 68

China’s African adventure

changing relations between developing nations and superpower case study

Answer 68

• Since 2000 China has looked beyond its own borders and has
  become a source of foreign direct investment (FDI), not just a
  destination for it
• Africa, a continent overlooked by the developed world for decades,
  has become a major trading partner for China
• Annual FDI from China had increased to US$3 billion by 2015 and the
  total stock of FDI stood at about US$ 35 billion
• China also provides economic and development aid to Africa in the
  region of US$ 2-3 billion
• By 2015, China had built 2250 km of railways and 3350km of roads in
  Africa
• It has created enormous interdependence

• China has promised Africa to: - double its aid by 2009

• Give a $5 billion loan and credit programme
• Increase two-way trade to over $100 billion by 2010
• Set up anti-malarial clinics
• Establish 5 trade and investment centres to train 15,000 people
• Cancel debt.

 China relies on African oil- from Angola, Nigeria and Sudan – as well
as minerals such as Zambian copper, and even sugar and biofuels
grown in Africa, to fuel its growing economy
 Africa increasingly imports Chinese-manufactured goods and relies on
Chinese investment in infrastructure like roads, rail and ports

Question 69

What fundamental issues have arisen as a result of Chinas growing influence in Africa

Answer 69

• The fundamental issue is whether China and developing African
  countries have a neo-colonial relationship (where Africa benefits little
  in return for its recourses) or a developmental relationship where
  Africa benefits and can progress through trade and deeper
  connections

 Skilled workers are often filled by Chinese migrant workers (200,000),
cheap Chinese imports have undercut local producers, much of the
FDI only brings temporary construction jobs

 China has invested heavily in roads, railways and ports to export raw
material – infrastructure that can be used by Africans themselves - vital
jobs are created especially by large industrial, transport and energy
project which also modernises the economy – Chinese factories and
mines bring modern working practices and technology

Question 70

Explain the 6 sources of instability in the Middle East

Answer 70

Religion: Most of the region is Muslim, but Sunni (Saudi Arabia, UAE) and Shia (Iran) sects are in conflict with each other, both within and between countries

Oil & Gas: 65% of the world’s crude oil exports originate in the region; the oil and gas reserves have long been a prize worth fighting over

Governance:Most of the countries are relatively new states, at least in their current form; democracy is either weak or non-existent; religious and ethnic allegiances are often stronger than national identity ones

Recourses: Although rich in fossil fuels, the region is short of water and farmland, meaning territorial conflict over recourses in more likely

Youth: Many countries have young populations with high unemployment and relatively low education levels: the potential for young adults to become disaffected is high

History: Many international borders in the region are arbitrary; they were drawn on a map by colonial powers and do not reflect the actual geography of religious or cultural groups

Question 71

What was the Arab Spring

Answer 71

A series of pro-democracy, pro-human rights civil uprisings in 2011 that affected Syria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Bahrain and Iran. Some governments were overthrown but, in most cases, protracted instability followed the uprisings.

Question 72

How has the natural sources of instability in the Middle East led to some intractable and potentially dangerous situations

Answer 72

 Turkey has long been fighting a low-level civil war against the Kurds in
Turkey, who want their own Kurdish state; however, the Kurds are one
of the key groups fighting IS in Syria and Iraq- and Turkey support this
fight as a member of NATO

 The EU and USA initially supported the Arab Spring uprising against
President Assad in Syria that begun in 2011, but by 2015 found
themselves bombing IS in Syria, effectively acting on the same side as
Assad’s forces

 Despite a war in Afghanistan led by the USA from 2002 to 2014,
Taliban insurgents continue to destabilise that country

 Some of the funding and support for IS, al-Qaeda and other terrorist
groups originates from the very countries that are fighting against
them, for example Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Pakistan and Turkey, straining
relations

Question 73

Evaluate the extent of the structural issues that face the EU as a remaining future superpower

Answer 73

Economic:

• Debt in the Eurozone amounted to 9.7 trillion in 2016
• Debt is a drag on economic growth
• EU unemployment was close to 10% in 2016
• This represents a cost to taxpayers and underused economic capacity

Demographic:

• The EU is ageing fast; by 2025 20% of EU citizens will be over 65
• After 2035, the EU’s population is likely to be falling

Political:
- The EUs nations do not act with one voice
- Tensions between wanting deeper union (France, Germany) and those
wanting less (UK) has seen the UK leave the bloc
- Immigration is an increasingly divisive issue

Recourses:
- Energy security is a key issue as it relies on imported oil and gas

Social:
- Youth unemployment in the EU was 22% in 2015 and over 45% in
Greece and Spain

Question 74

Evaluate the extent of the structural issues that face the USA as a remaining future superpower

Answer 74

Economic:
- National debt in the USA was 19 trillion
- However, the US dollars status as the global currency makes it less
vulnerable to economic shocks
- The USA has many large, innovative global TNCs, for example Apply,
Google, Facebook and Cisco

Demographic:
- The USA is ageing less fast than the EU and social costs (pensions,
healthcare) tend to be borne by individuals rather than the
government
- The total population will continue growing from 324 million in 2016 to
415 million in 2060

Political:
- Race relations in parts of the USA
- There is often political deadlock between Democrats and Republicans
- However, US values are fairly universal and these are projected to a
global audience

Recourses:

• USA is increasingly energy secure as a result of oil and fracking
• Water insecurity is an increasing problem in the southwest

Social:
- Health spending swallowed 17% of the USA’s annual GDP and is a
huge cost to families and government
- 74% of adult Americans are overweight

Question 75

What four different structural balances of global power could exist in the next 50 years

Answer 75

1. US hegemony (unipolar): US dominance, and economic and military
   alliances, continue in a unipolar world. China faces an economic crisis
   and ceases to grow rapidly
2. Regional mosaic (multi-polar): Emerging powers continue to grow
   while the EU and USA decline in relative terms, creating a multi-polar
   world of broadly equal powers with regional but not global influence
3. New Cold War (bipolar): China rises to become equal in power to the
   USA, and many nations align themselves with one or other ideology,
   creating a bipolar world similar to the 1945-90 Cold War
4. Asian century (unipolar): Economic, social and political problems
   reduce the power of the EU and the USA; economic and political
   power shifts to emerging powers in Asia, led by China.

Question 76

Arctic Council

Answer 76

Leading intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, Arctic indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues

• Support mechanisms to encourage national actions to reduce emissions
• Monitors Arctic environment, ecosystems and human populations
• works to protect the Arctic environment from the threat or impact of an accidental release of pollutants

Question 77

Neo Colonialism case study: Congo tin trade

Answer 77

• The tin trade keeps the Congo in a constant state of underdevelopment, government soldiers rule by gun power and
  many workers go unpaid. Soldiers wait at mine openings and take produce; therefore miners have nothing to trade for
  food.
• The global demand is directly linked to human rights abuse
• The tin trade is an example of global independence, which refers to countries being drawn together not only
  economically, but also to the increasing dependence one country may have on another.

Question 78

CASE STUDY – CHINA AND INDIA COMPARED

Answer 78

China and India together contain 1/3 of the world’s population; have experienced large economic growth since 1990.

China has experienced the largest growth ever, real per capita growth was at 8% PA, income is now $5,400 in PPP, India experienced growth rates of 4.4% and has PPP of $2,600.

Political and economic history:

China (pop. 1.3 billion)
Dominate global power for 2,000 years but decline in 19th century.
Manufacturing was impressive, by 1985, 33% of global manufacturing was Chinese.

India (pop. 1.2 billion)
Early centre of civilisation
British colony in 18th/19th century 
15% of manufacturing 
20th century struggle for independence 

Paths to development:

China
State-led industrialisation
Cut of from outer world 1949-80
Economic reforms 1978 onwards, leads to increase in FDI and trade

India
Economic and political independence
High import tariffs
Predominantly rural but powerful and global economy

Relations with other superpowers:

China
Uneasy and hostile e.g. Russia, USSR, USA
USA poor relationship – communism
Sought political and economic stability in Asia

India
India was neutral following independence, creating a pathway between USA and the USSR.
Good relationship with other neutral countries

Question 79

Ghana

Answer 79

• Gained independence from Britain in 1957. Some economic development was brought
  about from colonialism; and today true economic culvaon is hampered by decisions
  from wealthier naons (neo-colonialism)
• The Cocoa trade is an example of this. The price of cocoa is decided in the commodity
  trading exchanges in London & New York, which uses a form of futures market; causing
  the price to be very volatile,, creating irregular income and tax rates
• EU import tariffs are much higher for processed than raw cocoa beans, which means
  Ghana loses out on adding value to Cocoa beans. As a result, Ghanaian farmers lost
  out on higher incomes
• Ghana joined the WTO in 1995 to develop global trade; however, it was forced to end
  subsiding its farmers, instead relying upon cheap subsided foreign goods.

Consequently, Ghanaian tomato and rice farmers have been hit badly

• Many have argued this highlights dependency theory, and vicious cycle of poverty
• To gain some control, Ghanaian cocoa farmers have begun to form coopertives; such
  as Kuapa Kokoo, which has 40,000 members in 650 villages, works with Fair Trade,
  and the profit have paid for improved drinking water in rural areas & health
  insurance for farmers