Superpowers 1960 onwards Flashcards
Berlin Wall
Impacts of Berlin Ultimatum (Nov 58) by Khrushchev
Worsened relations in short term
Khrushchev made speech Nov 58 demanding West make changes to Berlin within 6 months (withdrawing troops & Berlin become a free city) or Khrushchev would hand control of routes into Berlin to E German government
Could have led to serious diplomatic or military consequences so worsened relations with Russia
Berlin Wall
Impacts of Berlin Ultimatum (Nov 58) by Khrushchev
Improved relations in long term
Geneva Conference 1959
Khrushchev wanted Western garrisons out of Berlin but Eisenhower believed that protecting freedom of West Berlin required ongoing US presence
Nothing changed but Khrushchev felt that his pressure was going to work
Camp David Summit 1959
Eisenhower invited Krushchev for further talks at Camp David but nothing was resolved
USSR did withdraw the ultimatum
The meeting did seem to improve relations
Khrushchev toured the US and this proved v popular.
Promised to meet again in Paris and proposed treaty on banning of testing of nuclear weapons
Berlin Wall
U2 Incident
Summit arranged Paris 1960.
Eisenhower wanted ‘open skies’ agreement so Russia and US would let spy planes fly over each other’s countries
Khrushchev refused but Eisenhower went ahead anyway
1 May 1960 American U2 spy plane was shot down over Ural Mountains and pilot (Gary Speed) was captured
Berlin Wall
Impact of U2 incident
Makes US more confrontational
Many felt US had ruined progress in East-West relations and threatened world peace
Incident seen as defeat for US. Americans thought Eisenhower was losing the Cold War
Elected JFK in 1960. He promised to be more tough on communism. This would lead to problems over Cuba later on
Berlin Wall
Impact of U2 incident
Makes it harder to come to any understanding because of relationship breakdown
Incident convinced Khrushchev that he couldn’t cooperate with Eisenhower.
Refused to take part in Paris summit unless Americans apologised
Eisenhower agreed to cancel spy flights but wouldn’t apologise.
Paris summit collapsed
Berlin Wall
Impact of U2 incident
Problems over Berlin continue in long term
Ultimately led to Berlin Wall
Khrushchev challenged Kennedy at the 1961 Vienna Conference to withdraw troops from West Berlin within 6 months or face war. Khrushchev believed Kennedy, inexperienced and influenced by the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, would comply. However, Kennedy rejected the demand, leading to increased military budget by $2 billion in preparation for war. In response, Khrushchev announced a 30% increase in Soviet spending. Yet, it was all a show of strength, as JFK had no intention of risking war over Germany.
Berlin Wall
Impact of U2 incident
Impact on USSR
Pilot Gary Speed put on trial for spying. Given 10 yrs but released in exchange programme in 1962
China felt it proved peaceful co-existence was wrong and US could not be trusted
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Probs in East Germany
1949 Germany divided into East & West
Berlin became main route for disaffected East Germans reaching the West
GDR economy not doing well - private trading banned, steep increases in food prices, farms collectivised. Shortages of goods angered East Berliners. Strikes and riots in June 1953. In East Berlin 100,000 people demonstrated.
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Propaganda embarrassment of West Berlin
US heralded economic success and political freedom of West Berlin as example of success of capitalist system.
West Berlin becoming a liability for Soviet Union and East Berlin gov. Divided city highlighted the sharp contrast between communisim and capitalism. Freedom of movement between sectors had led to mass exodus from eastern side
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Brain Drain
Berlin emigration loophole - 2.7 million people flooded into West Berlin since 1949 (about 1/6th of GDR pop). Gov wanted to stop exodus from GDR
Many were skilled and professional workers who wanted a better life
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
US espionage
Soviets believed rightly that West Berlin was centre for Western espionage
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Election of Kennedy
Kennedy dramatically increased US forces in Europe
Kennedy urged negotiation on German question and said that US was interested in defending free access to West Berlin from FRG rather than on maintaining the status of Berlin as a whole. So, he would fight to defend the freedom of West Berlin but wouldn’t stop GDR from closing border between East and West Berlin
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Military threat
US increasing military budget so threat of war
West Germany part of NATO
US military was stationed in West Germany, in case USSR tried to reunify Berlin - this was v unlikely and weak reason for building the wall.
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
U2 incident
Showed USSR that US could not be trusted
Peaceful co-existence ended at this point
Seen as a defeat of old US and weakened their position
Causes of the Berlin Wall
Why did Khrushchev order Berlin Wall to be built?
Failure of summits
- Geneva Conference 1959 failed to reach agreement because Eisenhower insisted on military presence in West Berlin so impossible for Khrushchev to re-unify Berlin
- Camp David Summit 1959 also failed
- Paris Summit collapsed over U2 affair and failed to discuss Berlin issue
- Vienna Conference 1961 failed. Kennedy had to show he was not soft on communism
Impact of the Berlin Wall
US
Negative outcome
At first it looked negative. Wall built without consulting US
People could not leave east unless they risked their lives
US dare not contest the war unless they started a war
Impact of the Berlin Wall
US
Positive outcome
Wall became a symbol of division in Europe
West Berlin became a symbol of freedom and defiance against communism
Over 130 people died
Wall demonstrated that Kennedy could not be bullied. He visited W Berlin in 1963. 1.5 million people turned out to see him as he toured city
Impact of the Berlin Wall
USSR
Negative outcome
Khrushchev failed to get demilitarised Berlin
Forced to accept western control of West Berlin
Unable to unite Germany under Soviet Control
Propaganda disaster for USSR
Given a choice people seemed to prefer capitalism
Impact of the Berlin Wall
USSR
Positive outcome
Did manage to stop flow of people over border
Could develop New Economic System for East Germany
Managed to avoid war but remain strong
Wall sent a message that communism would survive
Impact of the Berlin Wall
Cold War International Relations
Negative outcome
Wall symbol of lack of understanding and inability to resolve issue of Berlin
Oct 1961 standoff - US disputed right of Soviet guards to patrol and guard the checkpoints on the Wall as well as check passports of American officials who passed through the checkpoints. Americans stationed their own tanks on western side of checkpoints, which provoked Soviet response and they put Soviet tanks on East German side
Kennedy felt he had been outmanoeuvred by Krushchev
Impact of the Berlin Wall
Cold War International Relations
Positive outcome
Less likely to be a war as border was closed
Kennedy said wall better than war
Impact of the Berlin Wall
Impact on East West relations
Negative outcome
West Germans hoped for reunification and there was outrage
East Germans protested a little but protests quashed
Impact of the Berlin Wall
Impact on East West relations
Positive outcome
Improvement because issue of refugees crossing the border had strained relations badly since 1945
Impact of Cuban Revolution on US
Threat to Monroe Doctrine & US sphere of influence
Monroe Doctrine: Europe forbidden in Latin America. Under Roosevelt, US can defend property, maintain order, protect lives in Latin America. In 1954, US staged coup in Guatemala against left-wing leader seen as a threat.
Impact of Cuban Revolution on US
Land & business nationalisation
Land reform scheme 1959 no foreigners to be allowed to own agricultural land in Cuba
1960 ordered US oil refineries in Cuba to process Soviet crude oil. When refused he nationalised the US companies
Ike suspended sugar quota in US
Castro then nationalised all US companies in Cuba and triggered US embargo on virtually all trade to Cuba
Impact of Cuban Revolution on US
Links to USSR
After revolution Cuba moved closer to USSR, mostly due to US actions over sugar
Made deal with USSR over sugar and established diplomatic relations with USSR and then China
Impact of Bay of Pigs 1961
Humiliation of US
Castro showed evidence of wrecked planes to journalists and US involvement was obvious
To get imprisoned exiles back US gave aid worth $53 million
Made it seem that US acting in same way as USSR - building empire close to home and intervening in their affairs
Increasing closeness of Cuba & USSR was real worry. Might be arms deal between USSR and Cuba
Impact of Bay of Pigs 1961
Propaganda coup for USSR
Able to show Cubans happy under communist regime
Castro declared himself a communist
Asked Khrushchev to help defend Cuba.
Sep 1961 Khrushchev said would give arms to Cuba but didn’t mention missiles
Impact of Bay of Pigs 1961
Dangerous for international relations
Moves Cuba closer to USSR
If USSR placed nuclear missiles on Cuba it would threaten US
Made international situation far more dangerous
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For US
Success
Publically US look stronger as stood up to communism
Kennedy had won and Khrushchev had backed down
Soviets removed missile bases from Cuba
Kennedy in stronger position afterwards
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For US
Failure
Secretly US had agreed to remove missile bases from Turkey as requested in 2nd letter
France decided to leave NATO in 1966 as reluctant to be destroyed in any nuclear war & began to develop its own nuclear weapons
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For USSR
Success
Missile bases in Turkey removed, although done secretly
Confrontation avoided
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For USSR
Failure
Khrushchev removed from office by this party in 1964
Authority had been reduced because of removal of missiles from Turkey was done secretly
Cuba felt betrayed
China developed a more independent line believing Khrushchev to be weak
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For International Relations - The Thaw
Success
Beginning of end of Cold War
A thaw begins, later known as detente
Hot line - direct telephone link between White House & Kremlin in 1963
1963 Test Ban Treaty - limited nuclear testing and spread of nuclear arms to other countries. Signed by UK, US & USSR
disarmament and not help NNWS develop nuclear weapons
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis
For International Relations - The Thaw
Failure
Detente was slow
Took until 1970s to really develop
France pulled out of NATO and encouraged Western leaders to adopt a more independent line
Cuba assisted other Latin American countries to spread communist revolutions to increase its protection against US
Czechoslovakia 1968: Causes of Invasion
Long-term unrest in the country
Novotny was the leader since 1957 and he was unpopular and slow to follow de-Stalinisation. There was much public criticism of the way the USSR controlled the country as shown by the student demonstration in 1966. Dubcek was one of the people who challenged Novotny’s leadership of the communist party
Czechoslovakia 1968: Causes of Invasion
Prague Spring
In 1968, Dubcek replaced Novotny as First Secretary of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia, and his reforms aimed to improve communism. This period was known as The Prague Spring. The reforms included holding elections, abolishing press censorship, reducing the power of the secret police, and increasing trade with the West. Brezhnev feared these reforms could lead to the country leaving the communist bloc and becoming closer to West Germany.
Czechoslovakia 1968: Causes of Invasion
The potential spread of reforms outside of Czechoslovakia
Brezhnev faced opposition from hardliners in USSR. Romania and Yugoslavia challenged Moscow’s authority. Dubcek worsened the situation by inviting Tito to Prague and negotiating with Ceausescu, both unpopular in Moscow.
Czechoslovakia 1968: Causes of Invasion
Czechoslovakia was of Strategic Importance
Czechoslovakia was important strategically as if allied to the US it would provide a corridor along which US forces could march from West Germany to soviet Ukraine. It would advance the NATO frontier 700km to the east. It was also a strong country in terms of its contribution to the Soviet economy
Czechoslovakia 1968: Causes of Invasion
USA distracted
He was encouraged by problems in the USA which the count was likely to intervene - race riots, problems over Vietnam etc (similar to 1956 when Suez provided a distraction
Czechoslovakia 1968: Impact of the Czech Crisis
The US’s International Reputation Worsened
The events reduced international criticism of involvement in Vietnam as the Soviet invasion of an ally was far worse
An attempt to condemn the invasion at the UN was scuppered by a Soviet veto. In a sense, this may have made the USA look weak. In addition the fact the USA looked on whilst the USSR intervened might also have made the US look weak to others
Czechoslovakia 1968: Impact of the Czech Crisis
USSR strengthened
USSR’s invasion strengthened control over communist countries despite criticism from Yugoslavia, Romania, and China. West’s communists turned away from USSR. Warsaw Pact members learned USSR would suppress attempts to relax communist control. Brezhnev Doctrine allowed forceful imposition of communism by any communist country against independent actions.
Czechoslovakia 1968: Impact of the Czech Crisis
International Relations
The USA was in the middle of the Vietnam War and an election campaign. It protested but took no action and relations were not significantly worsened as a result. The USA and USSR had an unspoken deal that the US would not intervene in Czechoslovakia as long as the USSR did not intervene in Vietnam
Western Countries like Britain protested Soviet actions. However, a UN attempt to condemn the repression was vetoed by the USSR
Causes of Detente
USA: Economic
The Vietnam War cost a lot - was said to cost $170bn
This meant that there was less money to spend on domestic issues in the USA
Causes of Detente
USA: Problems Abroad
Cuba showed that a more stable relationship was needed as things could get out of control
The new chancellor of West Germany Willy Brandt wanted to build better relations between East and West Germany and others were following his lead and this showed that Detente was already happening
The USSR and China weren’t getting on and Nixon wanted to drive a wedge between the two of them
Causes of Detente
USA: Domestic Issues
Nixon won the 1968 election and was committed to ending the War and having a fresh start in foreign policy. Henry Kissinger used for this
There were huge demonstrations agasint Vietnam in the US and also social problems which needed money to help solve
Causes of Detente
USA: The Nuclear Issue
Cuba Crisis led to the hotline, easing of tension and the test ban treaty
Mutually Assured Destruction meant that no side could afford a war as it would lead to the destruction of both sides
China had developed a nuclear capability and friendship with China could force the USSR into an agreement with the USA
Causes of Detente
USSR: Economic
The cost of the Cold War was spiralling out of control in the USSR
Spending 30% of GDP on defence compared to the US only spending 13%
Falling behind in technologies so better relations could lead to the sharing of new technologies
Detente could extend trade with the West and help improve living standards in the USSR. It could be a way to decrease defence spending
Causes of Detente
USSR: Problems Abroad
Nixon visited China 3 months before the 1972 Moscow meeting and Brezhnev didn’t want to see a Chinese-US alliance develop
Causes of Detente
USSR: Domestic Issues
Brezhnev was keen to extend Khrushchev’s idea of peaceful co-existence
1968 Czech events were perhaps a wake-up call
Causes of Detente
USSR: The Nuclear Issue
The USSR had closed the missile gap - USSR had ≃ 250 more than USA
This made them think that the US might be keen to join talks on arms limitations - previously talks had failed because the US had only been willing to freeze which would have continued the Soviet inferiority
Causes of Detente
China: Economic
China wanted to modernise the economy and increased trade with the West would help this
Causes of Detente
China: Problems Abroad
China feared the USSR after border clashes in 1968. They sought help from the US and relations improved in 1971 through a friendly table tennis championship. US teams visited China and diplomats held meetings.
Causes of Detente
China: Domestic Issues
Post-Cultural Revolution there had been changes in leadership and those who favour a more market approach and reforms were in power (under Mao)
Causes of Detente
China: The Nuclear Issue
China was developing a nuclear capability and tested its first nuclear missile in 1966
Detente: Earlier Moves
Outer Space Treaty 1967
This ruled out putting nuclear weapons into orbit as the possibility was looking realistic. The moon and other plants could be used for peaceful purposes. Signed by the US, USSR, UK and 12 other countries
Detente: Earlier Moves
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968
Counties agreed not to share their nuclear technologies with other countries. Designed to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. Signed by 62 countries. Countries with Nuclear weapons would also work towards disarmament
Detente: SALT 1 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
Treaty on the Limitations of Anti-Ballistic Missiles
ABM systems were only at 2 sites, each site containing 100 missile launchers each
Detente: SALT 1 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
Interim Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty
This agreement imposed a 5-year freeze on the construction of missile launchers. Freeze on the construction of ICBMs and SLBMs
USA could have 1,054 ICBMs
USSR could have 1,618 ICBMS
USSR could have more missiles as the US could carry multiple warheads on one missile
Each side was allowed to spy on the other to check they weren’t breaking the arms limits
Nixon said that the US’ policy on nuclear weapons was having enough to defend themselves rather than having more than the USSR
Detente: SALT 1 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
Basic Principles Agreement
The Basic Principles Agreement laid down the rules for the conduct of a nuclear war (such as banning the placing of warheads on the seabed)
It set out steps to avoiding nuclear war e.g. both countries agreed to make every effort to avoid such a risk if it looked likely
Impact of Detente
Positive
Defence Costs were cut
Huge symbolic importance and improved relations
More meetings took place such as Nixon going to Moscow in 1972 and Brezhnev going to Washington in 1974
Impact of Detente
Negatives
If nuclear war looked likely it was unrealistic to expect it could be avoided just because each side signed a peace of paper
Each side still had enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other several times over
Impact of Detente
Moscow Meeting May 1972
Nixon visited Moscow
Nixon and Brezhnev got on well at a personal level - at least this was the image described by the press
During the meeting, Nixon said that Vietnam was not an obstacle to detente despite the fact that the USSR was supplying the other side
The 2 sides would try and avoid military confrontation and prevent the outbreak of nuclear war
Brezhnev would act as an intermediary between the US and North Vietnamese which eventually led to peace in 1973
