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Biology- Sac 2 > Summary > Flashcards

Summary Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 5 levels

A

cells
tissue
-organs
-system
-organism

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2
Q

organization of plant- cells

A

parenchyma cells- the major cells of plants, responsible for photosynthesis.

-sclerenchyma cell and collenchyma- provide support to the plant

-xylem cells- responsible for the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves

-phloem cells- responsible for the transport of sugars and other nutrients throughout the plant.

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3
Q

plant tissues

A

-dermal tissue- the single layer of cells covering the outside of a plant

-ground tissue- makes up the majority of the interior of the plant and carry out metabolic functions.

-vascular tissue- runs through the ground of the vascular plants, carrying water and nutrients

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4
Q

plant organs

A

leaves- sites of gas exchange and responsible for photosynthesis

flowers- the sexual reproductive organ

fruit- protects seeds and attracts animals that aid with seed dispersal

stems- support the leaves, fruit and transport of water and minerals.

roots- absorption and storage of water and nutrients from the soil

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5
Q

plant system

A

shoot- produces sugars by photosynthesis and carries out reproduction

root- anchors the plants, penetrates the soil and absorbs water and minerals. stores food.

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6
Q

organization of animals- cells

A

consists of skin, muscle, blood and nerve

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7
Q

animal tissues

A

muscle tissue- contracts to exert force. consists of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle

nervous tissue- detects stimuli and transmits electrical signals. composed of neurons.

connective tissue- connects and supports the other tissues and organ structures of the body.

epithelial tissue- composes the external ad internal layers. these protect, secrete and absorb.

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8
Q

animal organ

A

there are many major including heart, brain, liver and lungs

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9
Q

animal systems

A

digestive system- breaks down and processes food

excretory system- removes waste from the blood via excretion. consists of the control of water balance in the body.

endocrine system- responsible for the production and secretion of hormones which control and regulate bodily processes.

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10
Q

Root

A

the root system is essential to both stability and the intake of water and other minerals from the soil

it has a high surface area to volume to ratio for osmosis. extra root hairs help with this

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11
Q

extracellular pathway

A

water will enter and move through he gaps in-between the cells via the extracellular pathway. it will however need to enter through the Casparian strip of cells before going into the xylem tube system. It’s fast but not selective. Blocked by the Casparian strip in the endodermis.

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12
Q

Cytoplasmic pathway

A

Water and solutes move through the cytoplasm via plasmodesmata (small channels between cells). It’s slower but selective. It bypasses the Casparian strip.

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13
Q

Vascular tissue

A

specialized tubular tissue for transporting water and nutrients

consists of two types xylem and pholem

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14
Q

Xylem structure

A

carry water and mineral from the soil to the plant only moving in one direction.

made up of both vessel element cells and tracheid cells.

both cells are hollow and have cell walls that are strengthened by lignin proteins

between the cells are pits, these are large holes that allow water to move from the root to leaves

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15
Q

Phloem structure

A

Carry sugar and nutrients to the plant. moves in both directions.

composed of sieve tubes and companion cells

Sieve cells are hollow and they are tube like

in between the sieve cells is a sieve plate that allows substances to pass in between each sieve cell

they are surrounded by companion cells which are active in controlling substances moving in and out.

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16
Q

transpiration

A

the evaporation of water from the leaves. it requires the energy from the sun.

water sticks together this allows water to move up the xylem without energy. this forced reaction is called capillary action.

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17
Q

Stomata

A

underneath leaves are stomata. these are tiny pores that allow carbon dioxide, oxygen and water to move in and out of the leaf

they open and close based on 2 guard cells

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18
Q

guard cells

A

to open the stomata, potassium ions are pumped in, water follows via osmosis and the cells become turgid to make an opening. water can leave.

the reverse occurs to close the stomata, making the guard cells flaccid. Now nothing can enter or leave the cell.

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19
Q

Pholem translocation

A

translocation is the movement of organic materials (sugar and amino acids)

occurs through the phloem and can be active or passive

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20
Q

what is digestion

A

animals must consume food for growth, repair and reproduction and to provide energy for normal functioning.

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21
Q

parts of digestive system

A
  1. gastrointestinal tract this is 9meter long path that food will take that goes from your mouth to your anus. includes the oesophagus, stomach and intestines
  2. then there are the pancreas and gall bladder and liver which are essential for their secretion of special juices and enzymes
  3. next are the enzymes, hormones, blood, nerves and bacteria that are all needed to coordinate the breakdown and delivery of food
  4. finally, the mesentery, a large stretch of supportive tissue that keeps all your digestive organs in their place
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22
Q

steps in digestion

A

ingestion
digestion
absorption
elimination/egestion

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23
Q

Ingestion

A

eating with initial physical and chemical breakdown to swallow

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24
Q

Digestion

A

Most of the gastrointestinal tract is to physically and chemically break down food in order for it to be small enough for absorption

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25
absorption
the movement from the G1 tract to the bloodstream to be used
26
Eliminated/ Egestion
the undigested waste needs to be eliminated as faeces
27
egestion
the discharge of undigested material form a cell in case of unicellular organism, and from the district tract (via the anus)
27
Brain
the brain and the nervous system work together. 1. sensory and mental input 2. vagal activation of gastric motility and gastric juice secretion 3. Gastrin
28
mechanical breakdown
food must be broken down into smaller pieces to allow it to be absorbed. the first stage is chewing or churning. this increases the SA:V
28
Excretion
a process by which metabolic waste is eliminated form an organism. (via urine)
29
chemical digestion - enzymes
enzymes are secreted by various organs to catalyse, or speed up the breakdown of organic molecules into smaller units. occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.
30
Mouth
salivary glands secrete amylase ( a carbohydrate) which breaks starch down into sugar molecules. mucus helps saliva slid down the gullet.
31
swallowing
the chewed up food is called a bolus. it is swallowed and moved down the esophagus smooth muscles contract behind the bolus to prevent it form begin squeezed into the mouth. rhythmic waves of contraction work to propel the food into the stomach. called peristalsis
32
Stomach
the bolus enters the stomach from the esophagus and exits into the small intestine through the valve called the pyloric sphincter gastric enzymes are secreted. pepsin is a gastric enzyme that breaks proteins down into smaller peptide units.
33
Stomach (mechanical)
the stomach contain three layers of muscle that churn the food
34
small intestine
- pancreatic enzymes- secreted in the pancreas - bile- produced in the liver and stored and secreted via the gall bladder - glands in the wall produce various enzymes to break small peptides into amino acids.
35
chemical digestion (enzymes form pancrease)
macromolecules are broken down into smaller subunits. - peptides into amino acids using proteases - carbohydrates into simple sugars using amylases -fats into fatty acids using lipases - and large DNA and RNA molecules using nucleases
36
absorption- Intestine
after food is broken down into molecules it can be absorbed into the bloodstream. occurs in the small intestine small intestine covered in villi and they are covered in microvilli that create a greater surface area to volume ratio
37
large intestine
water is absorbed and the waste products are secreted as a faeces though the anus.
38
Purpose ( Excretory)
to remove excess and unwanted substances from the body and to maintain a stable internal environment. nitrogenous waste
39
Nitrogenous waste
nitrogen must be excretes as Ammonia, Uric Acid or Urea
40
Ammonia
occurs in the presence of a lot of water. in aquatic animals
41
Uric Acid
occurs in drier condition. more concentrated with nitrogen to conserve water
42
Urea
Mammals. requires less energy.
43
Urinary System
elimination of nitrogenous waste consist of two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder and a urethra.
44
Kidney
filters waste form the blood
45
Kidney structure
contains a renal capsule- thin layer of cells covering the kidney. renal cortex the outer layer of the kidney renal medulla is the inner part of the kidney. made up of renal pyramids and renal columns renal artery is where blood enters. ureter is where the filtered waste leaves.
46
Nephron
functional unit of the kidney each kidney contains nephrons. extends through the cortex and medulla of the kidney
47
glomerulus
clump of capillaries found in the kidney
48
capillaries
smaller blood vessels
49
Bowman's Capsule:
A cup-shaped structure that surrounds a network of capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood enters the glomerulus under pressure, and the filtration process begins here. Water, ions, and small molecules pass through the glomerular membrane into the Bowman's capsule, forming the filtrate.
50
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
The filtrate from the Bowman's capsule enters the PCT, where a significant amount of reabsorption occurs. Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and a large portion of water and ions are reabsorbed into the blood.
51
Loop of Henle
After the PCT, the filtrate moves into the Loop of Henle, which has a descending and an ascending limb. The descending limb is permeable to water but not to solutes, allowing water to be reabsorbed. The ascending limb, in contrast, is permeable to solutes but not to water, allowing sodium and chloride ions to be reabsorbed.
52
Distal Convoluted Tubule
The filtrate then enters the DCT, where further reabsorption of sodium, chloride, and water occurs, along with the secretion of potassium, hydrogen ions, and certain drugs and toxins into the filtrate.
53
Collecting Duct
Multiple nephrons empty into a single collecting duct. The collecting duct plays a crucial role in regulating water balance and urine concentration. Depending on the body's hydration status, more water can be reabsorbed here, concentrating the urine. The final urine then moves from the collecting duct into the renal pelvis, from where it flows to the bladder for storage and eventual excretion.
54
electrical messengers
electrical impulses produced in the nervous system
55
Endocrine purpose
to regulate and coordinate various bodily functions through the release of hormones.
56
chemical messenger
hormones produces by the endocrine system
57
Why cells talk
cells work together in order to maintain a stable internal environment known as homeostasis.
58
endocrine
a cell that targets a distant cell through he bloodstream
58
Autocrine
a cell that targets itself
59
Paracrine
a cell that targets nearby cells
60
Hormones
hormones will travel in the blood and respond to target cells with specific receptors
61
Steroid hormone
if the hormone is a steroid (a type of lipid) it can pass though the membrane and bind to a receptor inside. known as gene expression.
62
Peptide hormone
if the hormone is a peptide (a protein) then it will bind with a receptor on the surface of the cell and that receptor will trigger other molecules to produce a cell response.
63
Hypothalamus
makes hormones that control the pituitary gland.
64
pituitary gland
the pituitary gland produces hormones that regulate many of the other endocrine glands
65
parathyroid gland
these four glands release parathyroid hormone, which regulate the level of calcium in the blood
66
Thymus
releases thymosin, which stimulates Tcell development. in childhood
67
adrenal gland
released epinephrine and norepinephrine, which help the body deal with stress
68
Pineal gland
releases melatonin, which is involved in rhythmic activities.
69
thyroid
produces thyroxine which regulates metabolism
70
pancreas
produces insulin and glucagon, which regular BGL
71
Homeostasis
the constant state of the internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
72
stimulus response model
stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector and response
73
stimulus
the change in the external or internal environment
74
receptor
stimulus is detected by a recepetor which passes on either chemical or electrical signal onto the modulator
75
Modulator
usually the brain, receives stimulus information and process it to then send a message to the effector.
76
Effector
is a molecule, cell or organ that responds to the message from the modulator to produce a response
77
response
is then any change of the targe cell/ organ or organism as a result of the initial signal
78
negative feedback
a response which acts to reduce the difference between the current state and the required state
79
Positive feedback
a response which acts to increase the difference between the current state and the required state
80
Thermoregulating
to maintain an even core body temperature.
81
Increase heat generation
1. thyroxine 2. adrenaline and noradrenaline 3. shivering
82
thyroxine
Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce thyrotropin releasing hormone TRH is transported to the pituitary gland where it stimulates the release of Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH is transported in the blood to the thyroid where it stimulates the production of thyroxine. increases metabolic rate
83
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline
the hypothalamus stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline cause skeletal muscles and brown fate to increase metabolic rate
84
Shivering
hypothalamus sends message via motor neurons to skeletal muscles. cause them to contract and shiver. friction heats you up.
85
Reducing heat loss
1. vasoconstriction 2. piloconstriciton.
86
Vasoconstriction
neurons in the hypothalamus send messages to blood vessels in the skin causing them to constrict
87
Piloerection
the hypothalamus sends messages via motor neurons to muscles at the base of each hair in the skin, causing them to contract.
88
Rise in body temperature
sweating
89
Sweating
hypothalamus directs more of your blood flow to the skin and signals the body to sweat. it evaporates and heat leaves the body.
90
BGL
glucose is the primary energy source for many important functions int eh body. the concentration of glucose in the blood must be regulated.
91
glucose pathway
travel through the blood into cells. cells would either store it as glycogen or use it for energy
92
pancreas
pancreas releases two hormones If BGL are too high, insulin is released If BGL are too low glucagon is released
93
Insulin
acts by binding to a receptor and then increasing the gene expression of glucose transporters. Glucose can be taken out of the body cells.
94
Glucagon
causes glycogen breakdown, forming glucose
95
Osmoregulation
the maintenance of a constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism.
96
receptor (water)
water levels are not measured directly osmoreceptors sense osmotic pressure in the hypothalamus. baroreceptors, which detect the change in blood pressure and volume. do this in the stretch of arterial walls in the large arteries and kidney.
97
Modulator ( water)
Osmoreceptors will be modulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland baroreceptor will be done through kidney cells as well as the hypothalamus.
98
Effector (water)
the main effectors will be the diastral convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron in the he kidney. also hypothalamus
99
Dehydration
drop in water concentration in the blood. drop in water concentration and rise in blood solute concentration
100
ADH antidiuretic hormone
produced in the hypothalamus stimulates a rise in solute concentration in the blood. moves to the pituitary gland where it is released into the bloodstream.
101
ADH function
when it reaches the kidney, ADH acts to increase re-absorption of water by adding more water channels (aquaporins) cause blood solute concentration to decrease
102
Renin
released in response to fall in blood pressure. kidneys register this.
103
Renin function
causes the adrenal glands to produce aldosterone this cases sodium to be reabsorbed from the kidneys and water follows. caused by activation of sodium-potassium pumps
104
Type 1
- an autoimmune disease - incurable increasing -family history
105
Diabetes
a group of diseases that result in too much glucose in the blood blood type 1- chronic condition in which the pancreases produces little or no insulin type 2- chronic condition that affects the way the body processes glucose.
106
Type 2
caused more about lifestyle factors
107
Hyperglycemia
the state of having blood glucose levels above the normal range (>7.8 mmol/L) Frequent urination Increased thirst Blurred vision Fatigue Headache Difficulty concentrating Unintended weight loss Slow-healing sores or cuts Recurrent infections Nausea and vomiting Dry mouth and skin Shortness of breath (in severe cases)
108
Hypoglycemia
the state of having blood glucose levels below the normal range (<4.0 mmol/L) Shakiness or trembling Sweating, including cold sweats Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia) Hunger Irritability or mood changes Dizziness or lightheadedness Blurred vision Weakness or fatigue Headache Difficulty concentrating Confusion or difficulty speaking Seizures (in severe cases) Loss of consciousness (in severe cases)
109
Hyperthyroidism
caused by an overactive thyroid gland
110
thyroid gland
butterfly-shaped gland located in the base of the neck and is part of the endocrine system. it secretes triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T3).
111
Healthy (Hyperthyroidism)
the hypothalamus released thyroptropin-releasing hormone, which stimulare the anterioir pituitary gallnd and secretes thyroid stimulating hormone. this stimulates the thyroid gland, which secreates T3 and T4.
112
bad (Hyperthyroidism)
a condition where the thyroid produces too much T3 and T4.
113
Grave disease
cause of hyperthyroidism. an autoimmune disease. it produces thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin (antibody) that binds to the TSH receptors on the thyroid, causing the release of T3 and T4.
114
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Unintended weight loss, despite increased appetite Rapid or irregular heartbeat (palpitations) Increased sweating and sensitivity to heat Trembling hands (tremors) Nervousness, anxiety, or irritability Fatigue or muscle weakness Difficulty sleeping (insomnia) Changes in bowel habits, such as more frequent bowel movements Increased thirst and urination Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) Lighter or irregular menstrual periods in women Thinning of the skin Brittle hair and nails Bulging eyes (exophthalmos) in Graves' disease, a specific type of hyperthyroidism

Biology- Sac 2 (10 decks)

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