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Biology- Sac 2 > Summary > Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the 5 levels

A

cells
tissue
-organs
-system
-organism

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2
Q

organization of plant- cells

A

parenchyma cells- the major cells of plants, responsible for photosynthesis.

-sclerenchyma cell and collenchyma- provide support to the plant

-xylem cells- responsible for the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves

-phloem cells- responsible for the transport of sugars and other nutrients throughout the plant.

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3
Q

plant tissues

A

-dermal tissue- the single layer of cells covering the outside of a plant

-ground tissue- makes up the majority of the interior of the plant and carry out metabolic functions.

-vascular tissue- runs through the ground of the vascular plants, carrying water and nutrients

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4
Q

plant organs

A

leaves- sites of gas exchange and responsible for photosynthesis

flowers- the sexual reproductive organ

fruit- protects seeds and attracts animals that aid with seed dispersal

stems- support the leaves, fruit and transport of water and minerals.

roots- absorption and storage of water and nutrients from the soil

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5
Q

plant system

A

shoot- produces sugars by photosynthesis and carries out reproduction

root- anchors the plants, penetrates the soil and absorbs water and minerals. stores food.

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6
Q

organization of animals- cells

A

consists of skin, muscle, blood and nerve

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7
Q

animal tissues

A

muscle tissue- contracts to exert force. consists of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle

nervous tissue- detects stimuli and transmits electrical signals. composed of neurons.

connective tissue- connects and supports the other tissues and organ structures of the body.

epithelial tissue- composes the external ad internal layers. these protect, secrete and absorb.

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8
Q

animal organ

A

there are many major including heart, brain, liver and lungs

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9
Q

animal systems

A

digestive system- breaks down and processes food

excretory system- removes waste from the blood via excretion. consists of the control of water balance in the body.

endocrine system- responsible for the production and secretion of hormones which control and regulate bodily processes.

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10
Q

Root

A

the root system is essential to both stability and the intake of water and other minerals from the soil

it has a high surface area to volume to ratio for osmosis. extra root hairs help with this

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11
Q

extracellular pathway

A

water will enter and move through he gaps in-between the cells via the extracellular pathway. it will however need to enter through the Casparian strip of cells before going into the xylem tube system. It’s fast but not selective. Blocked by the Casparian strip in the endodermis.

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12
Q

Cytoplasmic pathway

A

Water and solutes move through the cytoplasm via plasmodesmata (small channels between cells). It’s slower but selective. It bypasses the Casparian strip.

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13
Q

Vascular tissue

A

specialized tubular tissue for transporting water and nutrients

consists of two types xylem and pholem

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14
Q

Xylem structure

A

carry water and mineral from the soil to the plant only moving in one direction.

made up of both vessel element cells and tracheid cells.

both cells are hollow and have cell walls that are strengthened by lignin proteins

between the cells are pits, these are large holes that allow water to move from the root to leaves

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15
Q

Phloem structure

A

Carry sugar and nutrients to the plant. moves in both directions.

composed of sieve tubes and companion cells

Sieve cells are hollow and they are tube like

in between the sieve cells is a sieve plate that allows substances to pass in between each sieve cell

they are surrounded by companion cells which are active in controlling substances moving in and out.

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16
Q

transpiration

A

the evaporation of water from the leaves. it requires the energy from the sun.

water sticks together this allows water to move up the xylem without energy. this forced reaction is called capillary action.

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17
Q

Stomata

A

underneath leaves are stomata. these are tiny pores that allow carbon dioxide, oxygen and water to move in and out of the leaf

they open and close based on 2 guard cells

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18
Q

guard cells

A

to open the stomata, potassium ions are pumped in, water follows via osmosis and the cells become turgid to make an opening. water can leave.

the reverse occurs to close the stomata, making the guard cells flaccid. Now nothing can enter or leave the cell.

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19
Q

Pholem translocation

A

translocation is the movement of organic materials (sugar and amino acids)

occurs through the phloem and can be active or passive

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20
Q

what is digestion

A

animals must consume food for growth, repair and reproduction and to provide energy for normal functioning.

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21
Q

parts of digestive system

A
  1. gastrointestinal tract this is 9meter long path that food will take that goes from your mouth to your anus. includes the oesophagus, stomach and intestines
  2. then there are the pancreas and gall bladder and liver which are essential for their secretion of special juices and enzymes
  3. next are the enzymes, hormones, blood, nerves and bacteria that are all needed to coordinate the breakdown and delivery of food
  4. finally, the mesentery, a large stretch of supportive tissue that keeps all your digestive organs in their place
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22
Q

steps in digestion

A

ingestion
digestion
absorption
elimination/egestion

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23
Q

Ingestion

A

eating with initial physical and chemical breakdown to swallow

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24
Q

Digestion

A

Most of the gastrointestinal tract is to physically and chemically break down food in order for it to be small enough for absorption

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25
Q

absorption

A

the movement from the G1 tract to the bloodstream to be used

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26
Q

Eliminated/ Egestion

A

the undigested waste needs to be eliminated as faeces

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27
Q

egestion

A

the discharge of undigested material form a cell in case of unicellular organism, and from the district tract (via the anus)

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27
Q

Brain

A

the brain and the nervous system work together.
1. sensory and mental input
2. vagal activation of gastric motility and gastric juice secretion
3. Gastrin

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28
Q

mechanical breakdown

A

food must be broken down into smaller pieces to allow it to be absorbed.

the first stage is chewing or churning. this increases the SA:V

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28
Q

Excretion

A

a process by which metabolic waste is eliminated form an organism. (via urine)

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29
Q

chemical digestion - enzymes

A

enzymes are secreted by various organs to catalyse, or speed up the breakdown of organic molecules into smaller units. occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.

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30
Q

Mouth

A

salivary glands secrete amylase ( a carbohydrate) which breaks starch down into sugar molecules.

mucus helps saliva slid down the gullet.

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31
Q

swallowing

A

the chewed up food is called a bolus.

it is swallowed and moved down the esophagus

smooth muscles contract behind the bolus to prevent it form begin squeezed into the mouth.

rhythmic waves of contraction work to propel the food into the stomach. called peristalsis

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32
Q

Stomach

A

the bolus enters the stomach from the esophagus and exits into the small intestine through the valve called the pyloric sphincter

gastric enzymes are secreted. pepsin is a gastric enzyme that breaks proteins down into smaller peptide units.

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33
Q

Stomach (mechanical)

A

the stomach contain three layers of muscle that churn the food

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34
Q

small intestine

A
  • pancreatic enzymes- secreted in the pancreas
  • bile- produced in the liver and stored and secreted via the gall bladder
  • glands in the wall produce various enzymes to break small peptides into amino acids.
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35
Q

chemical digestion (enzymes form pancrease)

A

macromolecules are broken down into smaller subunits.

  • peptides into amino acids using proteases
  • carbohydrates into simple sugars using amylases

-fats into fatty acids using lipases

  • and large DNA and RNA molecules using nucleases
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36
Q

absorption- Intestine

A

after food is broken down into molecules it can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
occurs in the small intestine
small intestine covered in villi and they are covered in microvilli that create a greater surface area to volume ratio

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37
Q

large intestine

A

water is absorbed and the waste products are secreted as a faeces though the anus.

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38
Q

Purpose ( Excretory)

A

to remove excess and unwanted substances from the body and to maintain a stable internal environment.

nitrogenous waste

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39
Q

Nitrogenous waste

A

nitrogen must be excretes as Ammonia, Uric Acid or Urea

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40
Q

Ammonia

A

occurs in the presence of a lot of water.

in aquatic animals

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41
Q

Uric Acid

A

occurs in drier condition. more concentrated with nitrogen to conserve water

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42
Q

Urea

A

Mammals. requires less energy.

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43
Q

Urinary System

A

elimination of nitrogenous waste

consist of two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder and a urethra.

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44
Q

Kidney

A

filters waste form the blood

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45
Q

Kidney structure

A

contains a renal capsule- thin layer of cells covering the kidney.

renal cortex the outer layer of the kidney

renal medulla is the inner part of the kidney. made up of renal pyramids and renal columns

renal artery is where blood enters. ureter is where the filtered waste leaves.

46
Q

Nephron

A

functional unit of the kidney

each kidney contains nephrons.

extends through the cortex and medulla of the kidney

47
Q

glomerulus

A

clump of capillaries found in the kidney

48
Q

capillaries

A

smaller blood vessels

49
Q

Bowman’s Capsule:

A

A cup-shaped structure that surrounds a network of capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood enters the glomerulus under pressure, and the filtration process begins here. Water, ions, and small molecules pass through the glomerular membrane into the Bowman’s capsule, forming the filtrate.

50
Q

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

A

The filtrate from the Bowman’s capsule enters the PCT, where a significant amount of reabsorption occurs. Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and a large portion of water and ions are reabsorbed into the blood.

51
Q

Loop of Henle

A

After the PCT, the filtrate moves into the Loop of Henle, which has a descending and an ascending limb. The descending limb is permeable to water but not to solutes, allowing water to be reabsorbed. The ascending limb, in contrast, is permeable to solutes but not to water, allowing sodium and chloride ions to be reabsorbed.

52
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule

A

The filtrate then enters the DCT, where further reabsorption of sodium, chloride, and water occurs, along with the secretion of potassium, hydrogen ions, and certain drugs and toxins into the filtrate.

53
Q

Collecting Duct

A

Multiple nephrons empty into a single collecting duct. The collecting duct plays a crucial role in regulating water balance and urine concentration. Depending on the body’s hydration status, more water can be reabsorbed here, concentrating the urine. The final urine then moves from the collecting duct into the renal pelvis, from where it flows to the bladder for storage and eventual excretion.

54
Q

electrical messengers

A

electrical impulses produced in the nervous system

55
Q

Endocrine purpose

A

to regulate and coordinate various bodily functions through the release of hormones.

56
Q

chemical messenger

A

hormones produces by the endocrine system

57
Q

Why cells talk

A

cells work together in order to maintain a stable internal environment known as homeostasis.

58
Q

endocrine

A

a cell that targets a distant cell through he bloodstream

58
Q

Autocrine

A

a cell that targets itself

59
Q

Paracrine

A

a cell that targets nearby cells

60
Q

Hormones

A

hormones will travel in the blood and respond to target cells with specific receptors

61
Q

Steroid hormone

A

if the hormone is a steroid (a type of lipid) it can pass though the membrane and bind to a receptor inside. known as gene expression.

62
Q

Peptide hormone

A

if the hormone is a peptide (a protein) then it will bind with a receptor on the surface of the cell and that receptor will trigger other molecules to produce a cell response.

63
Q

Hypothalamus

A

makes hormones that control the pituitary gland.

64
Q

pituitary gland

A

the pituitary gland produces hormones that regulate many of the other endocrine glands

65
Q

parathyroid gland

A

these four glands release parathyroid hormone, which regulate the level of calcium in the blood

66
Q

Thymus

A

releases thymosin, which stimulates Tcell development. in childhood

67
Q

adrenal gland

A

released epinephrine and norepinephrine, which help the body deal with stress

68
Q

Pineal gland

A

releases melatonin, which is involved in rhythmic activities.

69
Q

thyroid

A

produces thyroxine which regulates metabolism

70
Q

pancreas

A

produces insulin and glucagon, which regular BGL

71
Q

Homeostasis

A

the constant state of the internal environment despite changes in the external environment.

72
Q

stimulus response model

A

stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector and response

73
Q

stimulus

A

the change in the external or internal environment

74
Q

receptor

A

stimulus is detected by a recepetor which passes on either chemical or electrical signal onto the modulator

75
Q

Modulator

A

usually the brain, receives stimulus information and process it to then send a message to the effector.

76
Q

Effector

A

is a molecule, cell or organ that responds to the message from the modulator to produce a response

77
Q

response

A

is then any change of the targe cell/ organ or organism as a result of the initial signal

78
Q

negative feedback

A

a response which acts to reduce the difference between the current state and the required state

79
Q

Positive feedback

A

a response which acts to increase the difference between the current state and the required state

80
Q

Thermoregulating

A

to maintain an even core body temperature.

81
Q

Increase heat generation

A
  1. thyroxine
  2. adrenaline and noradrenaline
  3. shivering
82
Q

thyroxine

A

Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce thyrotropin releasing hormone

TRH is transported to the pituitary gland where it stimulates the release of Thyroid stimulating hormone

TSH is transported in the blood to the thyroid where it stimulates the production of thyroxine.

increases metabolic rate

83
Q

Adrenaline and Noradrenaline

A

the hypothalamus stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline

cause skeletal muscles and brown fate to increase metabolic rate

84
Q

Shivering

A

hypothalamus sends message via motor neurons to skeletal muscles.

cause them to contract and shiver. friction heats you up.

85
Q

Reducing heat loss

A
  1. vasoconstriction
  2. piloconstriciton.
86
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

neurons in the hypothalamus send messages to blood vessels in the skin causing them to constrict

87
Q

Piloerection

A

the hypothalamus sends messages via motor neurons to muscles at the base of each hair in the skin, causing them to contract.

88
Q

Rise in body temperature

A

sweating

89
Q

Sweating

A

hypothalamus directs more of your blood flow to the skin and signals the body to sweat. it evaporates and heat leaves the body.

90
Q

BGL

A

glucose is the primary energy source for many important functions int eh body. the concentration of glucose in the blood must be regulated.

91
Q

glucose pathway

A

travel through the blood into cells. cells would either store it as glycogen or use it for energy

92
Q

pancreas

A

pancreas releases two hormones

If BGL are too high, insulin is released

If BGL are too low glucagon is released

93
Q

Insulin

A

acts by binding to a receptor and then increasing the gene expression of glucose transporters. Glucose can be taken out of the body cells.

94
Q

Glucagon

A

causes glycogen breakdown, forming glucose

95
Q

Osmoregulation

A

the maintenance of a constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism.

96
Q

receptor (water)

A

water levels are not measured directly

osmoreceptors sense osmotic pressure in the hypothalamus.

baroreceptors, which detect the change in blood pressure and volume. do this in the stretch of arterial walls in the large arteries and kidney.

97
Q

Modulator ( water)

A

Osmoreceptors will be modulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

baroreceptor will be done through kidney cells as well as the hypothalamus.

98
Q

Effector (water)

A

the main effectors will be the diastral convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron in the he kidney.

also hypothalamus

99
Q

Dehydration

A

drop in water concentration in the blood.

drop in water concentration and rise in blood solute concentration

100
Q

ADH antidiuretic hormone

A

produced in the hypothalamus

stimulates a rise in solute concentration in the blood.

moves to the pituitary gland where it is released into the bloodstream.

101
Q

ADH function

A

when it reaches the kidney, ADH acts to increase re-absorption of water by adding more water channels (aquaporins)

cause blood solute concentration to decrease

102
Q

Renin

A

released in response to fall in blood pressure. kidneys register this.

103
Q

Renin function

A

causes the adrenal glands to produce aldosterone

this cases sodium to be reabsorbed from the kidneys and water follows. caused by activation of sodium-potassium pumps

104
Q

Type 1

A
  • an autoimmune disease
  • incurable
    increasing
    -family history
105
Q

Diabetes

A

a group of diseases that result in too much glucose in the blood blood

type 1- chronic condition in which the pancreases produces little or no insulin

type 2- chronic condition that affects the way the body processes glucose.

106
Q

Type 2

A

caused more about lifestyle factors

107
Q

Hyperglycemia

A

the state of having blood glucose levels above the normal range (>7.8 mmol/L)

Frequent urination
Increased thirst
Blurred vision
Fatigue
Headache
Difficulty concentrating
Unintended weight loss
Slow-healing sores or cuts
Recurrent infections
Nausea and vomiting
Dry mouth and skin
Shortness of breath (in severe cases)

108
Q

Hypoglycemia

A

the state of having blood glucose levels below the normal range (<4.0 mmol/L)

Shakiness or trembling
Sweating, including cold sweats
Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia)
Hunger
Irritability or mood changes
Dizziness or lightheadedness
Blurred vision
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Difficulty concentrating
Confusion or difficulty speaking
Seizures (in severe cases)
Loss of consciousness (in severe cases)

109
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

caused by an overactive thyroid gland

110
Q

thyroid gland

A

butterfly-shaped gland located in the base of the neck and is part of the endocrine system. it secretes triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T3).

111
Q

Healthy (Hyperthyroidism)

A

the hypothalamus released thyroptropin-releasing hormone, which stimulare the anterioir pituitary gallnd and secretes thyroid stimulating hormone. this stimulates the thyroid gland, which secreates T3 and T4.

112
Q

bad (Hyperthyroidism)

A

a condition where the thyroid produces too much T3 and T4.

113
Q

Grave disease

A

cause of hyperthyroidism.

an autoimmune disease. it produces thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin (antibody) that binds to the TSH receptors on the thyroid, causing the release of T3 and T4.

114
Q

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism

A

Unintended weight loss, despite increased appetite
Rapid or irregular heartbeat (palpitations)
Increased sweating and sensitivity to heat
Trembling hands (tremors)
Nervousness, anxiety, or irritability
Fatigue or muscle weakness
Difficulty sleeping (insomnia)
Changes in bowel habits, such as more frequent bowel movements
Increased thirst and urination
Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter)
Lighter or irregular menstrual periods in women
Thinning of the skin
Brittle hair and nails
Bulging eyes (exophthalmos) in Graves’ disease, a specific type of hyperthyroidism

Biology- Sac 2 (10 decks)

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