summa 2 Flashcards
the practice of extracting minetald and metals from the earth
mining
process of mineral extraction from a rock seam or ore
mining
natural rock or sediment containing one or more valuable material
ore
uses geophysical techniques that involves measuring the magnetic, gravity, and sonic responses of rocks above and around a prospective mineral ore body
modern mining
minerals that are abundant and close to the surface use this kind of mining
surface mining
The steps enumerated below are used or considered based on how they are needed during exploration. These steps are written within the context of a general exploration project where some activities may vary depending on the type of commodity being explored.
Mineral Exploration
This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals.
project design
these are included in the project design
geologic reports, mining history, maps,
the process in the project design
Stop-Go Design
This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area.
field exploration
The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface investigation and interpretation.
regional reconnaissance
utilized to extract ores that are close to the surface
surface mining
the most common type of surface mining
open-pit mining
means big hole in the ground
open-pit mining
the pit in the mine is created by
blasting explosives and drillings
used to mine gravel and sand and even rock
open-pit mining
removal of a thin strip of overburden(earth or soil) above a desired deposit
strip mining
dumping the removed overburden behind the deposit, extracting the desired deposit, creating a second parallel strip in the manner, and depositing the waste materials from that second(new strip on to the first strip
strip mining
this type of surface mining is used for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar mining
strip mining
minerals that can be obtained through strip mining
coal, phosphate, clays, tar
mining of minerals from a body of water
dredging
mining of stream deposits for minerals
placer mining
kind of mining when overburden is too great for removal
undergroubd mining
used to extract minerals beneath the earth’s surface
underground mining
this type of mining is more dangerous and expensive
underground mining
creating tunnels
underground mining
activities that involves regional investigation and interpretation
regional reconaissance
involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the objective of finding and delineating or mineralized zones
detailed exploration
assessing market profitability by (1) extensive resource, geotechnical, and engineering drilling, (2) metallurgic testing, and (3) environmental and societal cost assessment
project evaluation
the thing being assessed in project evaluation
extensive resources, geotechnical, and engineering drilling, metallurgic testing, environmental and societal cost assessment.
it determines and validates the accuracy of all data and information collected from diff. stages.
pre-production feasibility study
the purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy interested investors fund and bring the project into production
pre-production feasibility study
the extracted rocks will under go process of mineral ________ & _________
separation and recovery
the first stage of controlled size reduction
crushing and screening
step after crushing and screening
grinding
crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser metals sink thus are separated from lighter materials
heavy metal seperation
this method is used in separating chalcopyrite from quartz before refining process of extracting copper
heavy metal separation
if the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated fro, the waste materials using a powerful magnet
magnetic separation
the powdered ore is placed into an aggitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink or may stick to the bubbles and rise, thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste
flotation
this method is used for low-grade gold
cyanide heap leaching
the crushed rock is placed on a “leach pike” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the leach solution perculates down through the rocks, the solution is processed further to extract gold
cyanide heap leaching
these are formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms
fuossil fuels
3 kinds of fossiel fuels
coal, petroleum(oil), natural gas
fossil fuels contain high percentage of ________
carbon
it started forming over 350 mil years agi, through the transformation of organic plant matter
coal
it is a combustible, black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams
coal
the harder forms, such as _______ coal, can be regarded metamorphic rock because of exposure to elevated temp. and pressure
anthracite
what are the other elements that compose a coal other than carbon?
hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen
also called as coal-bearing period
carboniferous
the most favorable conditions for formations of coal occurred
360 mil to 290 mil years ago
290 mil to 250 mil
permian era
250 mil to 65 mil
mesozoic era
they are different kinds of coal ranked according to their _____________
carbon and volatile matter content
86-98% pure carbon and 8-3% volatile matter
Anthracite Coal
70-86% carbon and 46-31% volatile matter
Bituminous Coal
70-76% carbon and 53-42% volatile matter
Sub-Bituminous Coal
65-70% carbon and 63-53% volatile matter
Lignite
it consists primarily of decomposed vegetation.
peat
carbon content of less than 60% and is entirely compose of volatile matter
Peat
a poor fuel that was once used throughout Europe in form of dried briquettes for heating, but today is used in just some regions like Ireland
Peat
Anaerobic means
No Air
how coal is formed:
- before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps due to anaerobic decomposition
- over millions of years , the plants were buried under water and dirt.
- heat and pressure turned dead plants into coal
how is petroleum(oil) formed?
- tiny sea and plants died and were buried into the ocean floor. Over time they were covered by layers of silt and sand
- over mils of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. the enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas
- today we drill down through layers of sand, silt, and rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and gas deposits
oil and gas are formed from
organic matter from dead plants and animals
these _____ takes millions of years to form under specific pressure and temperature conditions
hydrocarbons
these hydrocrabons takes millions of years to form under specific _______
pressure and temperature conditions
when a living organism dies, it is recycled in one of two ways:
-eaten by predators
-it oxidizes through exposure wtih air or oxygen-rich water and it breaks down into water (H2O), carbon dioxide(CO2), nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates that nourishes new plants.
at a depth of 2000m, when the temperatures reaches 100C, kerogen starts to release
hydrocarbons
between 2000 and 3800m, it turns into
oil
the depth interval where oil is formed is called
oil window
when the source rock sinks further, to between 3800 and 5000m,
production of liquid hydrocarbon peaks
this liquids produced become increasingly lighter and gradually turned into
methane gas
the lightest hydrocarbon
methane gas
the depth interval bet 3800 to 5000m is called
gas window
there are not hydrocarbons below a depth of _______ bc they are destroyed by high temp.
8 to 10km
there are not hydrocarbons below a depth of 8 to 10km bc they are destroyed by ____
high temperature
if organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it will produce
oil
if organic debris is composed mostly of __________, it will produce oil than gas
animal origin
if its composed mainly of plant debris, the source rock will produce
gas
if its composed mainly of ______, the source rock will produce gas
plant debris
it takes ______ for dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons
60 million years
It is hardly surprising, therefore, that oil is classified as a _______
non-renewable energy source.
Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions:
-extracting thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam
-converting the thermal energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine
-and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine’s mechanical energy into electrical energy
as you descend into the Earth’s crust, underground rock and water become
hotter
This heat can be recovered using different ________ depending on the temperature. But the heat resources in geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible
geothermal technologies
the geothermal comes from Greek words ______ and ______
geo (earth) and thermos (heat)
rock reservoirs that contain groundwater
aquifers
It covers all techniques used to recover the heat that is naturally present in the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the rock reservoirs that contain groundwater
geothermal
. About half this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the _____ produced when the planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural radioactivity.
residual heat
About half this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat produced when the planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from ________.
natural radioactivity
the temp of geothermal water increases with depth, depending on the
thermal gradient
the average value of gradient worldwide is
3C per 100m of depth
the gradient varies between ________ depending on the physical conditions and geology of the region
1C to 10C per 100m
At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal heating
low-temperature geothermal energy
At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It transfers its heat to another fluid, which vaporizes at low temperature and drives a turbine to generate power.
medium-temperature geothermal energy
At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it reaches the Earth’s surface. It drives turbines to generate power
high-temperature geothermal energy
harnesses extremely hot water and steam from beneath the Earth to generate electricity in dedicated power plants.
medium and high-temperature geothermal energy
The average geothermal heat flow — the energy available for any given surface area and period — on the surface is ______
low
The geothermal heat flow averages _____ watts per square meter per year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow received in a single year by the same surface area.
0.06
the geothermal heat flow averages 0.06 watts per square meter per year, or _______ less than the solar energy flow received in a single year by the same surface area.
3,500 times
Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly ______
radioactivity and residual heat
Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using ________
heat pumps
Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using ________
heat pumps
Ensuring that these reservoirs will be _____- is especially crucial for geothermal heat pumps: external factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.
reheated
Ensuring that these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for geothermal heat pumps: external factors, such as _________meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.
low winter temperatures, cool the subsurface,
The circulation of _______ on contact with heat sources located away from the reservoir before returning to the reservoir.
groundwater that is reheated
Therefore, these heat resources must be _____ to use a reservoir in a sustainable manner.
replenished
the availability of geothermal energy is
geographically limited
thermal energy, contained in Earth, can be used to
directly supply heat
Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used directly to supply heat or can be converted to ______
mechanical or electrical energy.
the most widely use kind of power plant
hydropower power plant
hydropower plants produce ____ of renewable energy
83%
out of all kinds of plants, from hydropower to geothermal what is the most common part
turbine
in hydropower, the deeper the dam, the higher the
energy
renewable means
can be replenished easily
the world’s leading renewable energy source
hydropower
the kinetic energy generated by moving water has been used by mankind for centuries, to drive watermills that produce ____________
mechanical energy
The ________ generated by moving water has been used by humankind for centuries, to drive watermills that produce mechanical energy.
kinetic energy
Modern hydropower, sometimes referred to as “_______,” is harnessed in plants where electricity is generated.
white coal
Around ___ countries use hydropower to produce more than a fifth of their electricity.
40
Hydropower accounts for __% of electricity worldwide, behind coal and gas, but ahead of nuclear.
16
3 components of a hydroelectric power plant
dam, penstock, powerhouse
A ____ that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water to supply the plant at all times. As well as producing and storing energy, a dam also helps to regulate flooding.
dam
A ___ that channels water from its natural environment (river or lake) to supply the dam reservoir. It may be an open channel, a tunnel or pipeline.
penstock
A ____ that houses the turbines driven by the waterfall and the generator driven by the turbines.
powerhouse
types of hydroelectric power plants
Run-of-river plants, off-stream plants, pumped storage power plants
________ produce energy using the flow of the river. With dams less than 25 meters high, these “small hydro” plants generate power continuously to meet daily needs.
Run-of-river plants
________ are modular, meaning that energy can be produced on demand, with dams used to create reservoirs that can be released as required. On lakes, water falls from a significant height (over 300 meters); on locks, from between 20 and 300 meters.
Off-stream plants
________ are specifically designed for modular operation. They have two reservoirs at different heights.
Pumped storage power plants
When demand requires, water is released from the higher reservoir to the lower reservoir. When there is excess production — for example, from wind
or solar sources — the surplus electricity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir
Pumped Storage Power Plants
The water used to generate hydropower is renewable and storable, meaning it can be used at
peak consumption
Hydropower is extremely efficient, with 90% of the water’s energy converted into ______. In addition, hydropower plants do not generate greenhouse gases and other emissions.
electricity
In addition, hydropower plants do not ____________ and other emissions.
generate greenhouse gases
about what percent of earth’s surface is covered with water?
70%
all water on earth is part of a huge system call the
hydrosphere
the water on earth exists in 3 phases:
solid,liquid,gas
about what percent earth’s water salt water?
97%
what percentage of water on earth is frozen
2%
what percentage is for human consumption?
1%
if all water on earth is fit into a 1 liter bottle, how many is fresh water?
only 10milliliters
what percent is just fresh water?
3%
only what percent of fresh water is available for human consumption?
0.9%
what percent in surface water is good for humans
0.3%
how many percent is ice sheets and glaciers?
67%
what percent is groundwater?
30.1%
what percent of surface water are lakes?
87%
what percent of surface water are swamps?
11%
what percent pf surface water are rivers?
2%
refers to the water that collects on the ground
surface water
examples of surface water
oceans, lakes, streams, and reservoir
a protected artificial or natural lake that is used to collect or store water
reservoir
a huge mass of ice that forms on land when snow and ice accumulate faster than they melt
glaciers
most of Earth’s fresh wateris in the form of
glaciers
water that collects under the ground
groundwater
the upper level of underground water
water table
surface temp range of mercury
-170 to 390 (too hot and too cold)
surface temp range of venus
45-480(too hot)
surface temp range of venus
45 to 480(too hot)
surface temp range of earth
-88 to 56(just right for liquid water)
surface temp range of mars
-89 to 20(too cold)
One of the reasons why water is so useful is that it can ______ many things
dissolve
Over long periods of time, water dissolves and wears down rocks and mountains through processes called _____ and _____-
weathering and erosion
The human body is __ to ___ water.
60% to 75%
When you eat food, ____ in your body dissolves nutrients so they can be carried through your bloodstream.
water
a dam has lots of purpose name 2
can be water supply and can be used for generating electricity through hydropower
