Subject Matter Requirements Flashcards
Mitosis: Period of cell growth before the DNA is duplicated
G1: Growth part of Interphase
Mitosis: Period when the DNA is duplicated (that is, when chromosomes are duplicated)
S: Synthesis part of Interphase
Mitosis: Period after DNA is duplicated; cell prepares for division
G2: Final preparations for division part of Interphase
Mitosis phases
PMAT - Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Mitosis: “pairing” - chromosomes pair in preparation for division
Prophase
Mitosis: “middle” - chromosomes line up on the mid-line of the cell
Metaphase
Mitosis: “away” - the chromatids are pulled away from each other by the spindle fibers attached to the centrioles
Anaphase
Mitosis: “two” - two new cells are formed, as well as the nuclear membranes
Telophase
Structure of the cell membrane:
form bilayer
Phospholipids
Structure of the cell membrane:
strengthens membrane
Cholesterol
Structure of the cell membrane:
let in selected molecules and ions
Protein channels
Characteristics of the cell membrane:
controls what enters and exits the cell
Semi-permeable
Characteristics of the cell membrane:
has water-proof middle with water interactive top and bottom
Hydrophobic / hydrophilic
Characteristics of the cell membrane:
bilayer is contiguous with vesicles and membranes of organelles, can be folded onto itself to allow endocytosis and exocytosis
Self-assembly
Methods of transport across the membrane:
random mixing due to kinetic energy of molecules/ions
Diffusion
Methods of transport across the membrane:
diffusion of water across a membrane
Osmosis
Methods of transport across the membrane:
ATP adds energy to move the molecules / ions
Active Transport
Methods of transport across the membrane:
membrane encloses around something outside the cell
Endocytosis
Methods of transport across the membrane:
specific case endocytosis, membrane encloses around food, “cell eating”
Phagocytosis
Methods of transport across the membrane:
specific case of endocytosis, membrane encloses around water, “cell drinking”
Pinocytosis
Methods of transport across the membrane:
membrane releases something to the outside of the cell
Exocytosis
Role of semipermeable membranes in cellular communication:
signal “same” or “intruder”, accept hormone signals
Surface proteins
Role of semipermeable membranes in cellular communication:
offer sites for cells to share materials
Junction
Role of semipermeable membranes in cellular communication:
space between nerve cells and neuromuscular junctions
Synapses
Role of semipermeable membranes in cellular communication:
fine strands of cytoplasm extending through pores in cell walls of plants
Plasmodesmata
What completes the synthesis of proteins?
Endoplasmic reticulum
What packs the proteins and tags them to go to other parts of the cell, organ or organism?
Golgi apparatus
Role of chloroplasts in obtaining and storing usable energy:
uses light energy to convert ADP + P to ATP
Photophosphorylation
Location of the Krebs cycle
Mitochondrial matrix
Where phosphorylation takes place - yielding large amounts of ATP
Mitochondrial cristae
What increases the rate of exergonic reactions by lowering activation energy?
Enzymes
Factors that affect enzyme activity:
the complexity of the enzyme and substrate, and the specificity of the binding site, will affect how well the enzyme binds with the substrate and/or similar substrates
Levels of protein organization
Factors that affect enzyme activity:
_____ denatures proteins and causes enzymes to lose their shape. _____ slows the kinetic activity of the molecules decreasing the likelihood of them coming in contact.
Heat / Cold
Factors that affect enzyme activity:
Salts can affect the same of the enzyme because of the positive and negative charges.
Ionic conditions
Factors that affect enzyme activity:
____________ of enzyme and substrate - one or the other becomes a limiting factor.
Concentration
Factors that affect enzyme activity:
Extremes in ____ and ____ denature the enzyme
pH - acid / base
Metabolism of macromolecules:
Macromolecules are broken down to monomers as in cellular respiration.
Catabolic pathways
There is a decrease in free energy because the stored energy in the large molecule is released and is no longer available to do work.
The reaction is exergonic because energy is released when the bonds that hold the molecule together are broken.
Metabolism of macromolecules:
Monomers are joined together to make macromolecules as in photosynthesis.
Anabolic pathways
There is an increase in free energy because energy is stored in the bonds used to make the macromolecule and becomes available to do work.
The reaction is endergonic because energy is stored when bonds are formed.
_________ blood from the body returns to the heart through veins and is then pumped to the lungs where oxygen is exchanaged for carbon dioxide in the capillary beds of the alveoli.
Deoxygenated
_________ blood is pumped back to the hear (from the alveoli) and out to the body to supply oxygen to the tissues.
Oxygenated
Food is chewed by teeth and swallowed with saliva into the esophagus.
Bolus
The stomach adds acid and churns the food until it is liquefied.
Chime
Some digestive enzymes are added in the mouth and the stomach, but the majority of the enzymes necessary for chemical digestion are excreted in the _________.
Small intestine
Fully digested particles are absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into ____________.
The capillary beds surrounding them
The blood stream carries the __________, ___________, and __________ to the cells of the body.
lipids, carbohydrates, and amino acids
Nitrogenous waste from the breakdown of proteins is released by the cells into the blood stream.
Waste removal
__________ are sent from a nerve receptor into the spinal cord and brain.
Afferent signals
__________ are sent from the brain to the peripheral body.
Efferent signals
Internal environment:
sense pressure
Baroreceptors
Internal environment:
sense chemical concentrations, acid/base, hormones
Chemoreceptors
Internal environment:
sense temperature
Thermoreceptors
Internal environment:
sense touch pressure, sstretching, sound waves, motion
Mechanoreceptors
External environment receptors
Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and sense organs
Self-regulated, independent of external environment, internal environment maintained within certain parameters
Homeostasis
What maintains the water and mineral balance in the body?
Kidneys
What maintains the fluid pressure and oxygen concentration in the body?
Heart
What collects information from all the internal and external sensors, monitors the information and sends messages to the other system to collaborate body functions?
Brain
What supports and protects the internal organs, moves the body in conjunction with muscles and are connected at the joints by ligaments?
Bones
What lies between bones to cushion joints?
Cartilage
What are connected to bones by tendons?
Muscle
Sliding of ______ and _______ in myofibrils cause contraction of muscle fibers that together form a contraction in a muscle.
Myosin / actin filaments
Physiology of the Immune System:
protection by skin, mucous membranes, tears, saliva, inflammation, histamine response, complement system
Non-specific Responses
Physiology of the Immune System:
Humoral response and Cell-mediated response
Specific Responses
Antibodies bind to antigen and trigger a response to it.
Antibody-mediated response
They activate helper T cells.
Antibodies
Cause plasma B cells to produce antibodies
Antibody-mediated response
Cause memory B cells to be produced so that the reaction time will be reduced the next time that specific antigen is encountered.
Antibody-mediated response
T-Cells that display the antigen and trigger a response to it
Cell-mediated response
Vaccination relies on the production of ____________.
Memory B cells
The individual receiving the vaccination must have _________ or no antibodies will be made, or the vaccine may make them contract the disease.
functional immune system
The vaccine must have enough DNA from the _________ to trigger an antibody response, but not so much as to initiate the disease process.
Pathogen
The vaccine may need to be administered in doses to assure the ________ level in the blood stream reaches a therapeutic level.
Antibody
(Vaccination) The individual may need _________ to maintain a therapeutic level of memory B cells.
Boosters
Chemotherapy targets rapidly reproducing cells, so it kills cancer cells as well as also killing ___________. For this reason, chemotherapy patients also are vulnerable to infections.
White blood cells
DNA -> _______ -> _________
RNA / Protein
Chromosome structure:
All the genes that are part of an organisms’ genotype are made up of ___________
sequences of DNA bases
Chromosome structure:
Sequences that code for each trait can be found on a specific location on a specific ___________.
Chromosome
Chromosome structure:
The double stranded DNA is twisted around ___________ (proteins) to form chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis.
Histones
Chromosome structure:
When the cell is not dividing, the DNA remains unwound in the ___________.
Nucleus
Chromosome structure:
What was the purpose of the Human Genome Project?
To determine the exact location of every human trait on chromosomes and create a gene map
How does meiosis promote variation?
Through crossing over and segregation of chromosomes
How does fertilization promote variation?
By bringing together gametes from diverse individuals with different alleles
_____________ during meiosis can cause aneuploidy (wrong number of chromosomes). The most common example is trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome.
Non-disjunction of chromosomes
Any change in the chromosome can change the DNA base sequence and thereby the _____________. These changes can result in a different phenotype if they change the amino acid sequence of the protein that is being coded.
RNA base sequence
A trait that is not on the X or Y chromosome; this is the assumed case unless otherwise stated.
Autosomal
Traits that are physically located near each other on the chromosome and tend to be inherited together because they cross over together
Linked
Traits that are on the X or Y chromosome.
Sex-linked
If a trait is X linked, _________ may have the trait or be carriers for the trait.
Females
If a trait is Y linked, only ________ will have the trait.
Males
When a phenotype is seen in the homozygous and heterozygous cases (RR and Rr)
Dominant
When a phenotype is seen only in the homozygous case (rr)
Recessive
When a mix of dominant phenotypes is seen.
Codominance
A graphic method to determine the probable distribution of alleles in the offspring of two parents
Punnet Square
Which Mendel’s Law?
Genetic: Homozygous dominant (RR) or recessive (rr) or Heterozygous (Rr)
Cellular: Proteins for both alleles are produced, but the presence of one may mask the appearance of the other.
Law of Dominance
Which Mendel’s Law?
Genetic: One allele is inherited from each parent. Sperm and egg each will have only one allele for a trait.
Cellular: The gametes are unique.
Law of Segregation
Which Mendel’s Law?
Genetic: Unless there is gene linkage or sex linkage, traits are independent of each other and have no influence on the probability of any other trait being inherited.
Cellular: Mendel was able to see dihybrid traits, so he assumed the traits were independent.
Law of Independent Assortment
Because of crossing over, and then the two cell divisions in meiosis, there is a ____________ chance that a particular allele will end up in a particular gamete.
One in 4
Genes have ___________ to turn them on or off.
Operons
Genes that are lethal are almost always
A. Dominant
B. Recessive
B. Recessive
____________ are a good way to diagram the existence of traits in families.
Pedigrees
Mutations:
When one location on the DNA or RNA strand is wrong
Point mutations
Mutations:
When an extra base is added
Additions
Mutations:
When a base is missing
Deletions
Mutations:
When the three codon-reading frame has moved back or forward
Frameshift
Mutations:
Where a mutation causes the transcription to not start or not stop
In start and stop codon
Mutations:
May cause a synthesis problem if a different amino acid is coded
Between start-and stop-codon
Mutations:
When there are more codes for one amino acid
Redundancy
After ____________ the messenger RNA is cut and spliced.
Transcription
What is used to make insulin and other proteins, as well as producing crops that are more resilient to parasites, have more nutrition, and are more cosmetically pleasing?
Genetic engineering
Construction of recombinant DNA molecules by basic DNA technology:
Enzyme cuts DNA near certain desired sequences.
Restriction digestion by endonucleases
Construction of recombinant DNA molecules by basic DNA technology:
Uses electrical charge to separate DNA segments by size.
Gel electrophoresis
Construction of recombinant DNA molecules by basic DNA technology:
DNA ligase helps stick two pieces of DNA together.
Ligation
Construction of recombinant DNA molecules by basic DNA technology:
New DNA is combined with a host cell to form a changed cell.
Transformation
Construction of recombinant DNA molecules by basic DNA technology:
Steps for recombination/gene splicing:
- Restriction enzyme cuts DNA.
- Foreign DNA is added.
- DNA ligase “glues” the new DNA to the Original
Bioethics:
Changing DNA to accomplish a desired phenotype, protein secretion, or other function
Genetic engineering
Bioethics:
Making copies of DNA to accomplish reproduction without meiosis or fertilization.
Cloning
Bioethics:
Mapped the loci of all human genes.
The human genome project
Bioethics:
Putting cloned healthy genes into cells of diseased individuals to attempt to remedy the genetic disorder.
Gene therapy
Bioethics:
Life expectancy and quality of life weighed against overpopulation and cost considerations.
Medical implications
The physical traits of an organism determines its _________ for an environment.
fitness
______________ favors fitness; therefore, _____________ acts on phenotype rather than genotype.
Natural selection / natural selection
The more ___________ a group of organisms, the more likely they will be to survive.
diverse
How are fossils made?
Organisms die in sand or water and are covered by silt. Over time the minerals from the surroundings harden in the organism and preserve it as rock. Organisms can also leave an impression in the silt.
What makes a good, findable fossil?
Many of the same organisms;dense material such as bone or shells; buried in a location that we are likely to unearth.
The variety of life on Earth across all of the different levels of biological organization - (small scale): the variety in the genetic make-up of a sepcies - (large scale): the variety of ecosystem types - the amount of animal and plant life in a particular habitat
Biological diversity - or Biodiversity
Periods of tremendous evolution followed by periods of relative calm
Episodic speciation
Periods in the fossil record that show an event that caused a large loss of life
Mass extinction
Frequency of an allele in a population can be increased or decreased by chance.
Genetic drift
Two members of different species and genealogies look alike or have analogous structures.
Convergent evolution
Periods of calm followed by periods of intense evolution
Punctuated equilibrium
Patterns of selection:
Selection favors the extremes (i.e. breeding of greyhounds for speed)
Directional
Patterns of selection:
The environment is disrupted and as a result favors the extremes.
Disruptive
Patterns of selection:
Favors the norm; the common trait; survival of the fittest in an unchanging environment.
Stabilizing
Patterns of selection:
According to this hypothesis, most of the changes in DNA inside individuals are the result of ‘genetic drift’ - random changes that go on all the time and are not steered by natural selection in one direction or another. Those who support this explanation say that most genetic changes are neither helpful nor harmful; yet, genetic changes may become common in a population (or disappear entirely) due to chance events. Therefore, random processes explain most of evolution at the molecular level.
Neutral Evolution
Five Necessary Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
- Large population, more than 10,000 individuals
- No net changes due to mutation
- Isolated population; no migration
- Random mate selection
- All genotypes have an equal chance of success.
Why are the necessary conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium unlikely to appear in nature?
Not many populations are: > Big > Isolated > Mate randomly > Do not mutate and have no regard for survival of the fittest
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation:
p>2 + 2pq + q>2 = 1
p + q = 1
Where p = dominant allele, q = recessive allele, 2pq = heterozygous
There is a group of sheep in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Ninety-one (91%) are white and 9% are black. Black color is a non-harmful autosomal variation. What percent of the while sheep are heterozygous?
42%
Something an individual can do in its lifetime to encourage its own survival, but the change does not affect the DNA that would be passed on to its offspring.
Accommodation
A gradual, multigenerational change to become more successful as a species.
Adaptation
The situation where organisms are separated by a physical barrier such as an island.
Geographic isolation
If a population is small, there may not be much diversity, so the organisms have almost identical DNA after several generations.
Founder effect
If a population remains ___________, the organisms will evolve together with no outsiders to stabilize the gene pool.
isolated
The situation where organisms have a preference for certain mating traits, have different mating seasons, or are physically not compatible.
Reproductive isolation
A model for the evolution of the universe that holds that all matter and energy in the universe were concentrated in one point, which suddenly exploded. Subsequently, matter condensed to form atoms, elements, and eventually galaxies and stars.
Big Bang Theory
Evolution of Life - 10 Steps
- Early Earth was hot; atmosphere contained poisonous gases; no O2.
- Earth cooled and oceans condensed.
- Simple organic molecules may have formed in the oceans.
- Small sequences of RNA may have formed and replicated.
- First prokaryotes may have formed when RNA or DNA was enclosed in microspheres.
- Later prokaryotes were photosynthetic and produced oxygen.
- An oxygenated atmosphere capped by the ozone layer protected Earth.
- First eukaryotes may have been communities of prokaryotes.
- Multi-cellular eukaryotes evolved.
- Sexual reproduction increased genetic variability, hastening evolution.
The body of unique living organisms
Biodiversity
Describe the effects on biodiversity of alteration of habitat.
If the alteration makes more competition expect to see biodiversity decrease as species become extinct or emigrate. If the alteration opens niches you will expect to see more biodiversity as new species move in.
It is very important for the producers in an ecosystem to be __________.
stable
What would happen if producers die off?
The entire ecosystem would collapse due to lack of food for the consumers.
What are some consequences of consumers’ instability?
They could over-eat the producers and there would be a problem with some types of seed dispersal and pollination.
What would happen if there were no decomposers?
There would be no way to remove carcasses and waste matter. Decomposers are essential to the nutrient cycles.
What would happen if there are too many decomposers?
It could cause health problems for the producers and consumers because of infection and infestation of food supplies.
Species interaction:
hunter / hunted
Preditor / prey
Species interaction:
One organism benefits, and the other is harmed.
Parasitism
Species interaction:
Both organisms benefit from the interaction.
Mutualism
Species interaction:
One organism benefits, and the other is unaffected.
Commensalism
Species interaction:
Two organisms struggling to use the same resources
Competition
Fluctuations in population size in an ecosystem due to the relative rates of birth, immigration, emigration, and death:
Increased birth rate, decreased death rate and immigration:
Increase population size
Fluctuations in population size in an ecosystem due to the relative rates of birth, immigration, emigration, and death:
Decreased birth rate, increased death rate and emigration:
Decrease population size
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Live in rapidly changing environments
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Temporarily large populations
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Short life span
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Reproduce early in life
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Have many offspring
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Offer no parental care of offspring
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Bacteria and insects
R-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Slow growing
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Small populations
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Long life span
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Few young
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Slow maturing
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Extensive care of young
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Population near carrying capacity
K-Strategists
Reproductive Strategies Survivorship Models
R-Strategists or K-Strategists?
Humans, whales, elephants
K-Strategists
Changes in an ecosystem resulting from changes in ____________:
Rain, temperature, wind or other weather conditions could cause changes in the ecosystem depending on how they affect the relative populations of producers, consumers and decomposers.
Climate
Changes in an ecosystem resulting from changes in ____________:
Industrialization, pollution, arson and other types of habitat infringement cause decreased resources for the ecosystem and increased competition for the remaining organisms.
Human activity
Changes in an ecosystem resulting from changes in ____________:
Nonnative species may not have natural prredators, or may be better adapted to the new environment. This fitness can cause native species to be pushed out in favor of the nonnative species, which can cause problems with the food web.
Introduction of nonnative species
Changes in an ecosystem resulting from changes in ____________:
Can cause supply and demand problems for other members of the food web.
Changes in population size
