Study Guide SOC 200 (9/28) Flashcards
Auguste Comte
“father of sociology”
-scientific method to the study of society
Emile Durkheim
-one of the founding figures of modern sociology, alongside Max Weber and Karl Marx
-social integration and social solidarity
-connection between social factors and individual behavior
-empirical research and statistical analysis in sociology
-functionalist perspective->how different parts of society contribute to its stability and function
William Chambliss
-labeling theory–> a sociological perspective that examines how societal reactions, particularly labeling individuals as deviant or criminal, can influence their subsequent behavior
-importance of social structure and power dynamics in understanding criminal behavior and societal reactions to it
Ervin Goffman
-Dramaturgical theory–>likens social life to a theatrical performance
-Presentation of self –> “front stage” (public persona) and “backstage” (private self) to explain how people manage their self-presentation
-concept of stigma and how individuals with stigmatized attributes navigate social interactions.
-importance of symbols, language, and interactions in shaping social reality
Richard Quinney
-important in the field of critical criminology
-made contributions to labeling theory, which explores how the labeling of individuals as deviant or criminal can have significant consequences for their social identity and future behavior.
-Conflict Theory: posits that society is characterized by conflict and competition over resources and power.
-advocated for social justice and the reform of the criminal justice system
Karl Marx
-a revolutionary thinker, economist, and philosopher whose ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on the fields of sociology, economics, and political theory. He is best known for his role as the co-author of “The Communist Manifesto” and for his development of Marxist theory, which laid the intellectual foundation for modern communism and socialism.
-Marx’s work focused on analyzing the dynamics of capitalism and class struggle. He argued that in a capitalist society, the working class (proletariat) was exploited by the owning class (bourgeoisie) and that this exploitation would eventually lead to a proletarian revolution and the establishment of a classless, communist society.
Max Weber
-His work continues to be influential in a wide range of academic disciplines, and his ideas on rationalization, bureaucracy, and the intersection of culture, religion, and economics have enduring relevance in the social sciences and beyond. Max Weber is considered one of the founding figures of sociology and a key thinker in the development of modern social theory.
Ida Wells-Barnet
-African American journalist, civil rights activist, and anti-lynching crusader who made significant contributions to the civil rights movement and the fight against racial injustice. She is known for her unwavering commitment to racial equality and social justice.
Jane Adams
-American social reformer, sociologist, and the co-founder of Hull House, a renowned settlement house in Chicago. She is known for her significant contributions to the fields of social work and sociology, as well as her advocacy for social justice and women’s rights.
W.E.B. du Bois
-African American sociologist, civil rights activist, and intellectual who made significant contributions to the fields of sociology, civil rights, and racial justice. He was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and a vocal advocate for civil rights, racial equality, and social justice.
Edwin Sutherland
–American criminologist known for his significant contributions to the field of criminology, particularly for developing the theory of differential association. This theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions with others who hold pro-criminal attitudes and values. Sutherland’s work challenged earlier criminological theories that focused solely on individual characteristics and biological factors, emphasizing the importance of socialization, peer influence, and cultural context in understanding criminal behavior. His ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on the study of criminology and have influenced the development of sociological theories of crime and deviance.
individuals learn criminal behavior – cultural transmission
Charles Horton Cooley
-American sociologist known for his significant contributions to the fields of symbolic interactionism and social psychology. He is perhaps best known for his concept of the “looking glass self,” which emphasizes how individuals develop their self-concept through their perceptions of how others view them. Cooley’s work highlighted the importance of social interaction and communication in shaping individuals’ identities and understanding of themselves in relation to society. His ideas have had a lasting impact on the study of social psychology and the examination of how the social environment influences self-perception and social behavior.
George Herbert Mead
-American philosopher and sociologist known for his significant contributions to the fields of social psychology, symbolic interactionism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. His work focused on the development of self and socialization, emphasizing the role of language, communication, and social interaction in shaping individuals’ identities and understanding of the world. Mead’s ideas laid the foundation for symbolic interactionism, a sociological perspective that examines how individuals construct meaning and reality through their interactions with others. His work has had a lasting impact on social theory, psychology, and communication studies, influencing our understanding of the self, society, and human behavior.
Clay Shirky
-American writer, consultant, and professor known for his significant contributions to the fields of media, technology, and the internet. His work has focused on the social and economic implications of digital technologies and their impact on communication, collaboration, and collective action. Shirky’s insights on how the internet and social media have transformed the way people interact, share information, and mobilize for social and political causes have been influential in discussions about the digital age and its effects on society. His books, including “Here Comes Everybody” and “Cognitive Surplus,” have been widely read and discussed, contributing to our understanding of the digital revolution and its broader societal implications.
-media, tech, internet
Ferdinand Tönnies
-most notable work, “Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft” (Community and Society), explored the contrast between two ideal types of social organization: Gemeinschaft, representing traditional, close-knit, and community-based societies, and Gesellschaft, representing modern, impersonal, and urban societies. Tönnies’ concepts have had a lasting influence on the fields of sociology and anthropology, providing valuable insights into the nature of social relationships, social change, and the transformation of communities in the modern world. His work continues to be referenced in discussions of social structure and societal transformation.
Gerhard Lenski
Gerhard Lenski focused on the level of technology to understand how society is organized.
* Hunting-and-gathering
* Horti-cultural
* Agrarian
* Industrial
* Post-industrial
Travis Hirschi
-American sociologist known for his significant contributions to the field of criminology and social control theory. His most notable work, “Social Bond Theory” or the “Social Control Theory,” examined the factors that prevent individuals from engaging in delinquent or criminal behavior. Hirschi proposed that strong social bonds, including attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief in conventional values, serve as protective factors against deviance and crime. His theory has had a profound impact on the study of criminal behavior and continues to be influential in criminology research, emphasizing the importance of social relationships and societal bonds in preventing criminal activities.
Henri Tajfel
-social psychologist known for his significant contributions to the study of intergroup relations and social identity theory. His research focused on understanding how people categorize themselves and others into social groups, and how these group identities can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict. Tajfel’s work laid the foundation for our understanding of how individuals derive a sense of self and belonging from their group memberships, and how these identities can impact behavior and attitudes towards members of other groups. His research has had a lasting impact on the fields of social psychology and sociology, particularly in the study of prejudice, identity, and group dynamics.
-social identity
-implications of group identity–> prejudice, discrimination and intergroup conflict
Pierre Bourdieu
-focused on understanding how social structures and cultural capital influence individuals’ behaviors, preferences, and opportunities. Bourdieu introduced concepts like “habitus,” “field,” and “cultural capital” to analyze how social class, education, and cultural background shape people’s lives and choices. His ideas have had a profound impact on social theory, particularly in the study of social inequality, education, and cultural consumption, and continue to influence research in these areas.
How did Sociology as a discipline come into existence?
-industrial revolution
-french origin
- comte: “basic laws of society”
- durkheim: suicide research => soc as a discipline
-Martineau => English sociology; methods; inequality and power; activism
-analysis of social order and social inequality
What are the different steps in the research process and what are the parts of research design?
- Identifying the Research Problem:
Defining the research question or problem to be investigated.
Conducting a literature review to understand existing research on the topic.
2. Formulating Research Objectives or Hypotheses:
Setting clear objectives or hypotheses that guide the research.
3. Research Design:
Choosing the research approach (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods).
Selecting the research methods (surveys, experiments, interviews, observations, etc.).
Deciding on the research design (cross-sectional, longitudinal, or case study).
Determining the research scope (sampling strategy, population, and timeframe).
4. Data Collection:
Collecting data according to the chosen methods and design.
Ensuring data quality and reliability.
5. Data Analysis:
Analyzing and processing collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques.
Drawing conclusions based on the analysis.
6. Interpretation of Findings:
Interpreting the results in the context of the research objectives or hypotheses.
Discussing the implications of the findings.
7. Drawing Conclusions:
Summarizing the key findings and their significance.
Reflecting on the research’s contribution to the existing body of knowledge.
8. Reporting and Disseminating Results:
Writing a research report or paper.
Presenting the findings through conferences, journals, or other appropriate channels.
9. Taking Action or Applying Findings:
Implementing recommendations or applying the research findings in practice, if applicable.
10. Review and Evaluation:
Reflecting on the research process and identifying areas for improvement.
Considering potential limitations and challenges faced during the study.
Thomas Theorem
-a sociological principle formulated by W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas. It states that “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” In other words, the way individuals perceive and interpret a situation, even if those perceptions are based on misconceptions or false beliefs, can have significant real-world consequences for their behavior and actions. This principle underscores the idea that subjective interpretations and beliefs can shape human behavior and interactions, leading to outcomes that align with individuals’ perceptions of reality.
Sociological imagination
-explore the interdependent relationship between who we are as individuals and the social forces that shape our lives
-allows us to see the influence of social class, gender, race, etc. (positional categories)
Sociology
- Sociology is the systemic study of the relationship between the individual and society and of the consequences of difference.
-As a discipline is committed to investigate and understand the full scope of our interdependence. (e.g. Hamburger miracle)
-Tool to understand why we think and act the way we do (Wright Mills)
Micro sociology
concentrates on the study of individual-level social interactions, behaviors, and small-scale social phenomena. It delves into the details of everyday life and focuses on how individuals interact with one another within various social contexts. Micro sociologists often use qualitative research methods, such as participant observation and in-depth interviews, to examine the intricacies of social relationships, communication, and the construction of meaning at the individual level. This subfield complements macro sociology, which examines larger social structures and institutions.
Macro sociology
-focuses on the study of large-scale social structures, institutions, and processes that shape societies and influence human behavior. It examines broad social phenomena such as social institutions, social change, social inequality, and the interactions between these elements on a societal level. Macro sociology seeks to understand the overarching patterns and trends that characterize societies, often using quantitative research methods and statistical analysis to analyze data. It contrasts with micro sociology, which explores individual-level interactions and behaviors within smaller social units.
Scientific method
- Define the problem
* operationalize - Review the literature
- Formulate a testable hypothesis
* Variables (independent; dependent; control) - Research design- collect and analyze data
* (random) sample
* Validity and reliability - Develop a conclusion
Code of ethics
- Code of ethics p. 40 (2018 41) –
working with human subjects - confidentiality
- Internal Review Board and Informed consent
- Funding influencing research? – objectivity and
integrity; disclosure - Value neutrality
- Value free = uncritical? (review p. 41 – 2018 42!)
- Value free => overcoming biases
- exploring voices outside of the mainstream
Value neutrality
-a principle in social science research that emphasizes the importance of objectivity and impartiality. It suggests that researchers should strive to conduct their studies without imposing their personal values, beliefs, or biases on the research process or its outcomes. Value neutrality is particularly relevant when conducting empirical research to minimize the influence of the researcher’s subjective opinions and ensure that the findings are as unbiased and objective as possible. However, achieving complete value neutrality can be challenging, and researchers often acknowledge their potential biases and work to mitigate them through rigorous research design and ethical considerations.
Feminist methodology
- Theoretical orientation influences the questions
they ask or fail to ask - Which subjects and what spaces?
- Global perspectives
- Involving and consulting subjects
- Seeking change
Participant observation/ethnography
-a qualitative research method used in anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences. In this approach, researchers immerse themselves in the social setting they are studying, actively participating in the activities and interactions of the group they are observing. By living within the community or context being studied, researchers gain a deep understanding of the culture, behaviors, and perspectives of the people they observe. This method is valuable for generating rich, context-specific insights but can be time-consuming and may raise ethical considerations related to informed consent and the role of the observer.
Hawthorne effect
-a psychological phenomenon observed in research settings where individuals modify their behavior or performance in response to the awareness of being studied or observed. It suggests that people may improve their performance or productivity simply because they are aware that they are being monitored, regardless of any specific interventions or changes in working conditions. The Hawthorne effect highlights the influence of social and psychological factors on behavior and is important in the fields of psychology, sociology, and management studies.
Secondary analysis
-a research method in which researchers reanalyze existing data that were collected by others for a different purpose. It involves examining and interpreting data that were originally collected for other research studies, surveys, or sources. Secondary analysis can be a cost-effective way to answer new research questions, explore different aspects of existing data, or replicate and validate findings from previous studies. Researchers using this method analyze and reinterpret data without collecting new information themselves.
Content analysis
-a research method used in various fields, including sociology, communication, and media studies, to systematically analyze and interpret the content of written, spoken, visual, or digital materials. Researchers use content analysis to identify patterns, themes, and trends in textual or visual data, allowing them to draw meaningful conclusions about the content’s characteristics, messages, and implications. This method involves the systematic coding and categorization of data, making it a valuable tool for studying media content, public discourse, and social phenomena.
Causality
-the relationship between cause and effect, where one event or factor (the cause) brings about a change or outcome in another event or factor (the effect)
Correlation
-concept that measures the degree to which two or more variables are related or move together in a consistent way.
Agency
-an individual’s capacity to make choices, exercise free will, and take intentional actions to shape their own lives and influence the world around them. It emphasizes the idea that individuals have a degree of autonomy and the ability to act independently, make decisions, and pursue their own goals, even within the constraints of social structures and norms. Agency is a fundamental concept in understanding human behavior, as it acknowledges the role of individual actions and choices in shaping social outcomes and structures.
Role exit
-sociological concept that refers to the process by which individuals disengage from a particular social role or identity, often transitioning into a new role or status. It involves a series of cognitive and behavioral steps, including the recognition of dissatisfaction or incongruence with the current role, the search for alternatives, and the eventual exit and adjustment to the new role. Role exit can be a complex and emotionally charged process, especially when it involves significant life changes or a departure from long-held identities.
Primary and secondary group
Primary Group: A primary group is a small, intimate, and long-lasting social group characterized by close, personal relationships, emotional bonds, and frequent face-to-face interactions. Members of primary groups, such as family and close friends, typically share strong feelings of belonging and a sense of identity.
Secondary Group: A secondary group is a larger and more impersonal social group focused on specific tasks, goals, or activities. Members of secondary groups often have more formal and instrumental relationships, with interactions driven by shared objectives rather than deep personal connections. Examples include work teams, clubs, and professional organizations.
Role strain
-concept that refers to the tension and conflicts individuals experience when they face competing demands and expectations within a single social role. It occurs when the responsibilities and obligations associated with a particular role become overwhelming or contradictory, making it challenging for individuals to fulfill their role effectively. Role strain is particularly relevant in understanding the complexities of roles in society, such as those related to work, family, and social relationships.
In group and out group
In-Group: An in-group is a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging. It often represents one’s primary social identity and is characterized by a strong sense of camaraderie, shared values, and positive regard for its members.
Out-Group: An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group to which an individual does not belong or with which they do not identify. Members of an out-group are often viewed as different or “other” and may be subject to prejudice, discrimination, or negative stereotypes.
Status (ascribed, achieved, master)
- achieved
- Ascribed
- Master status (Hughes)
Social institutions
an integrated and persistent social network dedicated to
ensuring that society’s core needs are met.
5 social institutions:
1. Family
2. Education
3. Religion
4. Economy
5. governmen
Reference group
-a social group to which an individual or group of individuals looks to for guidance, influence, and comparison in forming their beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors. Reference groups serve as benchmarks against which individuals assess their own actions and self-concept, and they can have a significant impact on an individual’s choices and aspirations.
Coalition
-an alliance or partnership formed by individuals, groups, organizations, or nations to work together toward common goals or objectives. Coalitions can be temporary or long-term and are often created to address specific issues, advocate for shared interests, or collaborate on projects that require collective effort and resources. They are a common strategy in politics, advocacy, social movements, and international relations, allowing diverse entities to pool their resources, expertise, and influence to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes.
Bureaucratization
The process by which a group, organization, or social movement increasingly relies on technical – rational decision making in the pursuit of efficiency.
McDonaldization
The process by which the
principles of efficiency, calculability,
predictability, and control shape organization
and decision making (in the U.S. and around
the world) – George Ritzer
Iron law of oligarchy
The principle that all
organizations even democratic ones, tend to
develop into bureaucracies ruled by an elite
few.
Socialization
A lifelong process through which
people learn the attitudes, values
and behaviors appropriate for
members of a particular culture.
but socialization is also important
for emotional growth
Agents of socialization (all the different ones)
- Family
- School
- Peer groups
- Mass media and technology
- Workplace
- Religion and the state
Socialization through the life course/life course approach
**Socialization occurs throughout
the Life course
- Anticipatory socialization
- Resocialization (for instance in a total institution)
- Role transitions (e.g., midlife, retirement)
