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1
Q

Define Natural Selection

A

The differential survival and reproduction of individuals

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2
Q

In which of the following processes is apoptosis usually most important?

A

Morphogenesis

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3
Q

The difference between the top and the bottom in a developing organism is called its

A

Polarity

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4
Q

The trp operon

A

Codes for proteins needed for tryptophan synthesis

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5
Q

The earlier the cell intervenes in the process of protein synthesis, the BLANK energy it wastes. Thus, cells will tend to regulate protein synthesis BLANK.

A

Less; at the earliest stage possible

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6
Q

Sigma factors bind to

A

RNA polymerases

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7
Q

Actin, which is part of many cellular structures and has several functions, is produced at constant levels in nearly all cells. It is best described as a BLANK protein.

A

Constitutive

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8
Q

Differentiation consists of

A

actual biochemical, structural, and functional changes of a cell.

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9
Q

Decent with modification

A

organisms are produced by their parents but are not identical to them

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10
Q

Common descent

A

means all living things on Earth are related and come from one common, single ancestor

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11
Q

why did scientists and philosophers have a hard time accepting the notion of common descent?

A

you cannot get order and complexity from random chaos alone

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12
Q

Regulation of gene expression

A

Cells only make certain proteins when they are needed

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13
Q

Five ways to silence protein expression

A 
o	Downregulate mRNA transcription
o	Hydrolyze mRNA, preventing translation
o	Prevent mRNA translation at ribosome
o	Hydrolyze the protein after it is made
o	Inhibit the proteins function
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14
Q

Explain beginning of gene expression in Prokaryotes

A

o Begins at Promoter
o RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription
o Selective gene transcription
 2 regulatory proteins that bind to DNA: repressor and activator

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15
Q

Negative regulation

A

Repressor protein prevents transcription

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16
Q

Positive regulation

A

Activator protein stimulates transcription

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17
Q

E coli

A

o Must adjust to sudden environmental changes

o Changes in nutrients (glucose vs lactose) = metabolic challenge

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18
Q

What is the preferred energy source by E coli? Why?

A

Glucose- easiest sugar to metabolize

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19
Q

What happens if Glucose is present?

A

Lactose will not be broken down

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20
Q

Lactose is what?

A

B-galactoside

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21
Q

What is a B-galactoside?

A

Disaccharide containing galactose B-linked to glucose

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22
Q

Inducible proteins

A

Proteins made in response to environment

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23
Q

Constitutive proteins

A

Proteins made at a constant rate in cell, regardless of environment

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24
Q

Operon

A

Gene cluster with single promoter that is transcribed as one mRNA

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25
Q

Lac operon

A

Metabolizes or breaks down lactose

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26
Q

If glucose is present, the lac operon is induced by what?

A

Lactose

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27
Q

The lac operon is what kind of system?

A

Inducible

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28
Q

Components of the lac operon

A

LacO, LacZ, LacY, LacA, LacI

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29
Q

LacO

A

Operator

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30
Q

Under no lactose conditions, the operator is (blank)

A

Bound by repressor

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31
Q

When repressor is bound by its inducer, the operator is

A

empty

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32
Q

LacZ

A

Gene for B-galactosidease

codes protein that breaks down lactose into galactose and glucose

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33
Q

LacY

A

Gene for permease

allows lactose to enter

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34
Q

LacA

A

Gene for trasacetylase

clears toxic material that results from lactose breakdown

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35
Q

LacI

A

Gene for repressor protein that binds operator

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36
Q

The lac operon is positively regulated by (blank)

A

CRP

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37
Q

CRP

A

cAMP receptor protein

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38
Q

when bound to cAMP, CRP (blank)

A

binds the lac operon promoter and forces RNA polymerase to transcribe the genes of the lac operon

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39
Q

why is the control of RNA polymerase by CRP necessary?

A

Ensures cell doesn’t transcribe genes to breakdown lactose when it can use glucose instead

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40
Q

cAMP levels are controlled by (blank)

A

glucose levels

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41
Q

If glucose is high, cAMP is (blank)

A

low

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42
Q

Low cAMP levels mean that

A

CRP cannot bind promoter and lac operon is not activated even if lactose present

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43
Q

If glucose is low, cAMP is (blank)

A

high

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44
Q

High cAMP levels mean that

A

It binds CRP and CRP binds promoter, promoting transcription of lac operon

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45
Q

Other systems of E coli besides the inducible lac operon system are

A

repressible systems

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46
Q

Repressible systems

A

o Repressed only under specific conditions

o Repressor normally not bound to operator

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47
Q

Co-repressor binds to repressor it causes

A

Repressor to change shape and bind to the operator which inhibits transcription

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48
Q

What is an example of a co-repressor working in a repressible system?

A

trp operon

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49
Q

Trp operon

A

Structural genes catalyze the synthesis of the amino acid typtophan

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50
Q

Repressible systems are common in (blank)

A

anabolic or building pathways

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51
Q

When tryptophan is present in the cell in adequate concentrations, it is (blank)

A

Advantageous to stop making the enzymes for tryptophan synthesis

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52
Q

How does the cell stop making enzymes for tryptophan synthesis?

A

Cell uses repressor that binds to operator in trp operon only when its shape is changed by binding to tryptophan (co-repressor)

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53
Q

Consensus sequence

A

Common sequences within promoters that allow RNA polymerases to bind

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54
Q

What is a very common consensus sequence?

A

TATA box

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55
Q

Sigma factors

A

Proteins in prokaryotic cells that bind to RNA polymerase and direct it to specific classes of promoters

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56
Q

RNA polymerase must be bound to a sigma factor before it can

A

Recognize a promoter and begin transcription

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57
Q

Seven ways to regulate protein expression in Eukaryotes

A 
o	Remodel chromatin 
o	Transcriptional control 
o	Processing control 
o	Transport control 
o	mRNA stability control 
o	translational control 
o	protein degradation
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58
Q

initiation of eukaryotic transcription with general transcription factor complex

A

o TFIID binds to TATA box
o TFIIB binds both RNA polymerase and TFIID and helps identify the transcription initiation site
o TFIIF prevents nonspecific binding of the complex to DNA and helps recruit RNA polymerase to the complex- similar in function to a bacterial sigma factor
o TFIIE binds to the promoter and stabilizes denaturation of DNA
o TFIIH opens the DNA for transcription

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59
Q

What happens in addition to general transcription factor complex?

A

enhancers and silencers

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60
Q

Enhancers

A

Regulatory sequences that bind transcription factors that activate transcription or increase rate of transcription

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61
Q

Silencers

A

Bind transcription factors that repress transcription

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62
Q

Transcription factors have common (blank) in the domains that bind to DNA

A

structural motifs

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63
Q

What is a common structural motif?

A

helix turn helix

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64
Q

For DNA recognition, the structural motif must

A

o Fit into a major or minor groove
o Have amino acids that can project into interior of double helix
o Have amino acids that can bond with interior bases

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65
Q

Development involves (blank)

A

Distinct but overlapping processes

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66
Q

Four processes of development

A

Determination
Differentiation
Morphogenesis
Growth

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67
Q

Determination

A

o Sets fate of cell

o Before any characteristics observable

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68
Q

Example of determination

A

mesenchymal stem cells fate to become connective tissue determined

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69
Q

differentiation

A

different types of cells arise, leading to cells with specific structures and functions

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70
Q

example of differentiation

A

mesenchymal stem cells differentiate to become muscle, fat, tendon, or other connective tissue cells

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71
Q

morphogenesis

A

organization and spatial distribution of differentiated cells into multicellular body and organs

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72
Q

growth

A

increase in size of body and its organs by cell division and enlargement

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73
Q

transplantation experiments using amphibian embryos show that (blank)

A

the fate of cells is determined as the early embryo develops

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74
Q

donor tissue from early-stage embryo

A

o adopts fate of the new surroundings

o cell fate not determined and is influenced by extracellular environment

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75
Q

donor tissue from older embryo

A

o continues original path

o cell fate already determined and not influenced by extracellular environment

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76
Q

cell fate

A

internal decision each undifferentiated cell makes to become part of a particular type of tissue

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77
Q

cell fate determination is influenced by (blank)

A

gene expression and the extracellular environment

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78
Q

determination is a (blank)

A

commitment

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79
Q

determination is followed by (blank)

A

differentiation

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80
Q

differentiation, the changes in (blank)

A

biochemistry, structure, and function that result in different cell types

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81
Q

cell potency

A

potential to differentiate into other cell types

82
Q

totipotent

A

any cell type (early embryo)

83
Q

pluripotent

A

most cell types but not new embryos

84
Q

multipotent

A

several related cell types

85
Q

unipotent

A

only one cell type (own)- mature

86
Q

2 processes that drive determination

A 
o	Cytoplasmic segregation (unequal cytokinesis)
o	Induction (cell to cell communication)
87
Q

Cytoplasmic segregation

A

Factor may be unequally distributed within cytoplasm and after division it ends up in some cells but not others

88
Q

Cytoplasmic segregation sets up

A

polarity

89
Q

polarity

A

Developing a “top” and a “bottom”

90
Q

induction

A

Factor actively produced and secreted by certain cells to induce other cells to become determined

91
Q

Cells in a developing embryo influence one another’s developmental fate via (blank)

A

chemical signals and signal transduction mechanisms

92
Q

The vertebrate eye development example is an example of (blank)

A

induction

93
Q

Concentration gradient of inducer matters as part of induction- example

A

Highest LIN-3 released by anchor cells in developing C elegans drives primary vulval development

94
Q

How do signals impact gene expression?

A

o Concentration of inducer affects degree to which transcription factor is activated
o Inducer acts by binding to receptor on target cell which is followed by signal transduction involving transcription factor activation or translocation of transcription factor from cytoplasm to nucleus
o Signal transduction acts to stimulate expression of genes involved in cell differentiation

95
Q

pattern formation

A

Process that results in the spatial organization of tissues and organisms

96
Q

Pattern formation is linked to

A

morphogenesis

97
Q

Morphogenesis involves cell division and differentiation as well as (blank)

A

apoptosis

98
Q

Pathways in apoptosis used in morphogenesis

A

o CED-9 and Bcl-2 = pro survival factors that bind and sequester pro-death factors CED-4 and Apaf1
o If conditions warrant apoptosis, CED-9 and Bcl-2 release CED-4 and Apaf1 which activate apoptosis pathway

99
Q

What are the four organs of a flower?

A

Carpels, stamens, petals, and sepals

100
Q

Organs of a flower grow in (blank) that develop from the floral meristem

A

whorls

101
Q

Floral organs are determined by 3 classes of (blank)

A

organ identity genes

102
Q

Organ identity gene polypeptide products combine in pairs to form (blank)

A

transcription factors

103
Q

A protein called (blank) controls transcription of organ identity genes

A

LEAFY

104
Q

The concentration gradient of a diffusible morphogen signals each cell to (blank)

A

specify its position

105
Q

Fate of a cell is often determined by (blank)

A

where the cell is

106
Q

Positional information often comes in the form of an inducer called a (blank) which (blank)

A

Morphogen- diffuse from one group of cells to another, setting up concentration gradient

107
Q

A morphogen directly affects (blank)

A

target cells

108
Q

Different concentrations of morphogen cause (blank)

A

different effects

109
Q

example of morphogen

A

o Shh in limb development
o Zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) in limb bud of embryo secretes morphogen Shh and cells in the bud form different limbs (thumb, fingers) depending on concentration of Shh

110
Q

Higher dose of shh means

A

little finger

111
Q

lower dose of shh means

A

thumb

112
Q

3 classes of genes involved in determination

A

maternal effect
segmentation
hox

113
Q

maternal effect genes

A

Set up the major axes (anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral) of egg

114
Q

Where are maternal effect genes transcribed?

A

Mothers ovary- mRNA passed to egg

115
Q

What are genes that help determine the anterior-posterior axis of embryo?

A

bicoid and nanos

116
Q

Maternal effect genes are subject to (blank)

A

unequal distribution

117
Q

Bicoid mRNA is translated into (blank)

A

bicoid protein

118
Q

bicoid protein

A

Transcription factor that diffuses away from the anterior end, establishing a gradient in the egg cytoplasm

119
Q

(blank) transports the nanos mRNA from anterior end of egg to the (blank)

A

Egg’s cytoskeleton; Posterior end

120
Q

The mRNAs for bicoid and nanos diffuse from where into where?

A

mother’s cells into anterior end

121
Q

hunchback

A

mRNA distributed evenly first, then nanos inhibits translation and bicoid stimulates it which establishes a gradient

122
Q

after the anterior and posterior ends have been established, the next step in pattern formation is

A

determination of segment number and locations

123
Q

segmentation genes

A

determine the boundaries and polarity of each segment

124
Q

3 classes of segmentation genes

A

o Gap genes
o Pair rule
o Segment polarity

125
Q

gap genes

A

Organize broad areas; mutations result in omission of body segments

126
Q

pair rule genes

A

Divide embryo into units of 2 segments each; mutations result in every other segment missing

127
Q

segment polarity

A

Determine boundaries and anterior/posterior organization in individual segments

128
Q

hox

A

Determine which organ will be made a given location

129
Q

Hox genes encode (blank)

A

Transcription factors that are expressed into different combinations that determine fate of each segment

130
Q

stem cells

A

Rapidly dividing, undifferentiated cells that differentiate into several cell types

131
Q

In plants, stem cells are in the

A

meristem

132
Q

In mammals, stem cells occur in

A

Tissues that need frequent replacement (skin, blood, intestinal lining)

133
Q

evolution

A

Change in genetic composition of populations over time

134
Q

Evolutionary change is observed in

A

Lab experiments, natural populations, and the fossil record

135
Q

Genetic changes drive

A

The origin and extinction of species and the diversification of life

136
Q

Evolutionary theory

A

Understanding of the mechanisms of evolutionary change

137
Q

Darwin 5 year voyage on HMS Beagle

A

Studied rocks and observed/collected plants and animals

138
Q

What did Darwin observe in the Galapagos islands

A

Species similar to mainland of South America but varied island to island

139
Q

Darwin 3 propositions

A

o Species change over time
o Descent with modification (common ancestor and diverged over time)
o Natural selection

140
Q

Natural selection

A

Differentiation survival and reproduction of individuals based on variation in their traits

141
Q

Alleles

A

Different forms of a gene

142
Q

Locus

A

Where alleles exist- particular site on chromosome

143
Q

Gene pool

A

Sum of all copies of all alleles at a loci in a pop

144
Q

Gene pool contains what

A

Genetic variation that produces the phonotypic traits on which natural selection acts

145
Q

Do individuals or populations evolve?

A

populations

146
Q

Group of individuals of a single species that live and interbreed in a particular geographic area

A

population

147
Q

mechanisms of evolution

A 
o	Natural selection
o	Mutations 
o	Gene flow
o	Genetic drift
o	Nonrandom mating
148
Q

Natural selection acts on

A

phenotype

149
Q

Fitness

A

Reproductive contribution of a phenotype to subsequent generations relative to other phenotypes

150
Q

Changes in (blank) of different phenotypes lead to change in allele frequencies

A

relative success

151
Q

Fitness of a phenotype is determined by

A

Relative rates of survival and reproduction of individuals with certain phenotype

152
Q

3 ways natural selection acts on quantitative traits

A

o Stabilizing selection
o Directional selection
o Disruptive selection

153
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

Preserves average phenotype

154
Q

Example of stabilizing selection

A

birth weight

155
Q

Directional selection

A

Favors individuals that vary in one direction

156
Q

Example of directional selection

A

texas longhorn

157
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Favors individuals that vary in both directions from mean

158
Q

example of disruptive selection

A

Black bellied seed crackers

159
Q

mutation

A

Any change in nucleotide sequences of DNA

160
Q

Selection acting on random variation results in

A

adaptation

161
Q

If conditions change, a mutation could become (blank)

A

advantageous

162
Q

Mutations can restore

A

genetic variation

163
Q

Mutation adds (blank) to the gene pool

A

new alleles

164
Q

allele frequency

A

Proportion of an allele in the gene pool

165
Q

genotype frequency

A

Proportion of each genotype in the population

166
Q

gene flow

A

Result of the migration of individuals movement of gametes between populations

167
Q

example of gene flow

A

Modern humans expand range into range of Neanderthals- interbreeding resulted in gene flow

168
Q

genetic drift

A

Results from random changes in allele frequencies

169
Q

Because of genetic drift, harmful alleles may (blank) and rare advantageous alleles may (blank)

A

Harmful alleles; lost

170
Q

Genetic drift is significant in

A

small populations

171
Q

population bottleneck

A

Environmental conditions result in survival of only a few individuals which can reduce genetic variation

172
Q

founder effect

A

Colonizing population unlikely to have all alleles present in whole population

173
Q

Nonrandom mating occurs when

A

Individuals choose mates with particular phenotypes

174
Q

Sexual selection

A

Favors traits that increase the chances of reproduction

175
Q

What did Darwin propose about sexual selection?

A

Traits such as bright colors, long tails, and elaborate courtship displays may improve ability to compete for mates or to be more attractive to the opposite sex

176
Q

Sexual selection may (blank)

A

Reduce chances of survival

177
Q

Evolutionary change can be measured by

A

Allele and genotype frequencies

178
Q

If a locus has two alleles, A and a, there could be three genotypes: AA, aa, and Aa. The population is (blank) at that locus.

A

Polymorphic

179
Q

p +q =

A

1

180
Q

If certain conditions are met, the (blank) of a population does not change over time

A

genetic structure

181
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A

Describes a model situation in which allele frequencies do not change

182
Q

(blank) can be predicted from allele frequencies

A

genotype frequencies

183
Q

conditions of HW

A

o No mutation (alleles present don’t change and no new alleles added)
o No selection among genotypes (individuals with different genotypes have equal survival and reproduction rates)
o No gene flow (no movement of individuals or gametes into or out of population)
o Population size infinite (smaller genetic drift effect)
o Mating is random (individuals don’t preferentially choose mates based on certain genotypes)

184
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation

A

P^2+2pq+q^2 = 1

185
Q

In HW equation p^2 =

A

Homozygous dominant (AA)

186
Q

In HW equation 2pq=

A

Heterozygous (Aa)

187
Q

In HW equation q^2 =

A

Homozygous recessive (aa)

188
Q

Neutral allele

A

Allele that does not affect fitness

189
Q

Sexual reproduction through recombination

A

o Results in new combinations of genes through the combination of gametes, crossing over, and independent assortment
o Produces genetic variety that increases evolutionary potential

190
Q

Major pitfall of sexual reproduction

A

Recombination can break up adaptive gene combinations

191
Q

Major advantage of sexual reproduction

A

Sexual recombination generates new combinations of alleles on which natural selection can act

192
Q

Frequency dependent selection

A

Polymorphism can be maintained when fitness depends on its frequency in population

193
Q

Example of frequency dependent selection

A

Right or left leaning jaw on fish

194
Q

Four ways to produce and maintain genetic variation

A

o Neutral mutation
o Sexual reproduction through recombination
o Frequency dependent selection
o Environment and geography

195
Q

Difficulties of the theory of evolution

A 
o	Absence or rarity of translational varieties (should be a record of species that came between ancestor and current species)
o	Organs of extreme perfection such as eyes
o	Instinct (thought instants were habits acquired by parents and passed to next gen)
196
Q

Evidence for common origin

A

o Morphology
o Embryology
o Rudimentary (vestigial) organs

197
Q

Morphology

A

Homology exists across life

198
Q

Embryology

A

Similarity between embryos early in development

199
Q

Rudimentary (vestigial) organs

A

Organs that lost original function (evolutionary baggage)

200
Q

Binding of operator prevents (blank) under no lactose conditions

A

Lac operon from activating

Biology Unit 3 (5 decks)

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