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BISC 421 - Module II > STUDY GUIDE > Flashcards

STUDY GUIDE Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 structures of the forebrain?

A
  1. Cerebral cortex (telencephalon)
  2. Basal Ganglia (telencephalon)
  3. Thalamus (diencephalon)
  4. Hypothalamus (diencephalon)
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2
Q

What is the major structure of the midbrain?

A
  1. tectum (mesencephalon)
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3
Q

What are the 3 structures of the hindbrain?

A
  1. Cerebellum (metencephalon)
  2. Pons (metencephalon)
  3. Medulla Oblongata (myelencephalon)
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4
Q

What are the 3 divisions of the central nervous system?

A
  1. forebrain
  2. midbrain
  3. highbrain
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5
Q

what are the lobes of the brain?

A 
FPOT
frontal 
parietal
occipital 
temporal
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6
Q

What is the fissure in the back? What does it separate

A 
calcarine sulcus (or fissure)
-separates parietal and occipital
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7
Q

what is the middle sulcus? What does is separate?

A

central sulcus

-separates frontal and parietal

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8
Q

what is the sulcus at the bottom?

A 
lateral sulcus (or fissure)
-separates  frontal and temporal
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9
Q

What are the 3 planes of section?

A
  1. coronal
  2. sagital
  3. horizontal
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10
Q

What does the CNS comprise?

A
  • Cerebrum
  • Cerebellum
  • Brainstem
  • Spinal cord
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11
Q

What does the PNS comprise?

A
  • somatic (voluntary)

- visceral (autonomic)

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12
Q

What is the primary difference between upper and lower motor neurons?

A

upper: movement planning
lower: movement execution

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13
Q

Where are upper neurons?

A

-In brainstem + cortex

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14
Q

Where are lower neurons?

A

-In spinal cord or brainstem

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15
Q

What are lower motor neurons?

A

-motor neurons that innervate proximal mucles

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16
Q

What is a motor pool?

A

group of motor neurons that innervate a single muscle (can comprise more than one type of motor unit)

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17
Q

What is a motor unit?

A

group of muscle fibers that receive input from a single motor neuron

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18
Q

What are smaller motor units responsible for?

A

fine movements (EX: soleus)

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19
Q

what are larger motor units responsible for?

A

course, forceful movements (jumping)

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20
Q

Which region of the spinal cord houses motor neurons?

A

Ventral horn + ventral roots (?)

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21
Q

Which type of muscle do you think would be more resistant to fatigue? Associated with posture or with attack/escape?

A
  • smaller motor neurons generate lasting contractions

- posture

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22
Q

Smaller (S) alpha motor neurons

A
  • conduct slowly

- innervate muscle fibers that generate small, lasting contractions (EX: postural muscles like soleus)

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23
Q

Larger (FF) alpha motor neurons?

A
  • fast

- innervate larger groups of muscle that generate larger forces (EX muscles for jumping)

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24
Q

Intermediate (FR) alpha motor neurons

A

-innervate muscles with intermediate properties

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25
Q

When are gamma motor neurons likely to fire?

A

?

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26
Q

Which might trigger the reflex involves muscle spindles?

A

?

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27
Q

What are Group 1a sensory afferents? When are they most active?

A
  • wrap around the bag and chain fibers

- most active when muscle length changes (EX stretching)

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28
Q

What are group II sensory afferents? When are they most active?

A
  • wrap around chain fibers only

- most active when muscle is stretched

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29
Q

Nuclear bag

A

sensitive to rate of change in muscle length (velocity)

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30
Q

Nuclear chain

A

fibers sensitive to muscle length

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31
Q

What sort of information does the Golgi tendon organ convey, via which type of afferent?

A
  • signal information about force (activity greatest when muscle contracts)
  • capsules encasing group 1b afferents
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32
Q

What cortical regions supply the fibers that descend trough the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts?

A

?

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33
Q

What are the 2 descending motor tracts that originate in the motor and premotor cortices?

A
  1. corticobublar (ends in brainstem)

2. corticospinal (ends in spinal cord)

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34
Q

The corticobulbar tract is ______ while the corticospinal tract _____ at the _____

A
  • uncrossed

- crosses, midline

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35
Q

What is the anterior (ventral) corticospinal tract?

A
  • crosses at the cord

- makes bilateral + polysynaptic connections with medial motor neurons that are used to maintain posture

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36
Q

What is the lateral cortico-spinal tract?

A
  • comprises most of corticospinal tract

- originates from premotor cortex + primary motor cortex

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37
Q

What is a main difference between motor and premotor cortex?

A

Motor cortex: execution

Premotor cortex: planning

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38
Q

Which pathway acts as the accelerator and which as the brake on movements?

A

direct: accelerator
indirect: brake

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39
Q

Loss of dopamine correlates with which disease, Huntington’s or Parkinson’s?

A

Parkinson’s = loss of dopaminergic neurons in substania nigra

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40
Q

Loss of striatal neurons, on balance, results in which disease, Huntington’s or Parkinson’s?

A

Huntingtons = loss of striatum (caudate, putamen)

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41
Q

Dopamine _____ the direct pathway via ____ receptors

A

excites, D1

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42
Q

Dopamine _____ the indirect pathway via _____ receptors

A

inhibits, D2

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43
Q

Medium spiny cells that project to the _______ are ____ by dopamine D1 receptors

A

Glob. Pal. Int., excited

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44
Q

Medium spiny cells that project to the _______ are ___ by dopamine D2 receptors

A

Glob. Pal. Ext., inhibited

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45
Q

Does the loss of dopamine affect only one pathway or both?

A
  • dopamine affects both pathways
    direct: reduce disinhibition of thalamus
    indirect: increases inhibition of thalamus
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46
Q

What is the movement deficit associated with loss of dopamine?

A

-rigidity, rolling pill tremor

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47
Q

What structure is hemiballismus it associated with?

A
  • Ipsilateral loop that controls the contralateral side of the body
  • Affects one subthalamic nucleus at a time
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48
Q

Why do you think that hemiballismus affects only one side of the body?

A
  • only affects one sub thalamic nucleus

- controls

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49
Q

What are 6 muscles that move the eye?

A
  1. Superior rectus
  2. Inferior rectus
  3. Lateral rectus
  4. Medial rectus
  5. Superior oblique
  6. Inferior oblique
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50
Q

Which brainstem nuclei innervate the medial and lateral rectus muscles?

A
  1. Medial rectus – oculomotor nucleus

2. Lateral rectus – abducens nucleus

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51
Q

Which brainstem nuclei innervate the inferior and superior obliques?

A
  1. Superior oblique – trochlear nucleus

2. Inferior oblique – oculomotor nucleus

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52
Q

What is a saccade?

A

immediately direct our gaze somewhere else (jerky movements)

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53
Q

What is slow pursuit?

A

tracking targets as they move

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54
Q

What is conjugate eye movement?

A

bilateral fixation on a single object

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55
Q

Do vergence movements involve conjugate or disconjugate eye movements?

A

Vergence movements: eyes moving in opposite directions

-disconjugate eye movements

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56
Q

What happens to eye moments when the superior colliculus is damaged?

A

short term (not long term) loss in ability to make saccades(immediate direct gaze)

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57
Q

What happens when the frontal cortex (frontal eye fields) is damaged?

A

impairs ability to make voluntary movements away from

salient stimulus in visual field towards “remembered” positions

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58
Q

What happens if both structures are damaged?

A

permanent loss of ability to make saccades

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59
Q

What, in a nutshell, does the horizontal gaze center do?

A

?

60
Q

Is there a motor map in the superior colliculus and, if so, how does it line up with the retinotopic map?

A
  • The motor map and the visual map are both organized on spatial coordinates
  • preservation of spatial relationship
  • morphed/rotated
61
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

fight or flight

62
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

rest and digest

63
Q

What are ganglia?

A

clumps of cells (nerve cells) outside of CNS

64
Q

Preganglionic

A

lies within CNS (output goes to ganglia)

65
Q

Postganglionic

A

lies within PNS (output goes to effectors)

66
Q

Where are preganglionic cells in the sympathetic nervous system?

A

lie in lateral horn in thoracic + lumbar

67
Q

Where are the symapthetic ganglia?

A

lie in prevertebral sympathetic trunk (chain)

-remaining prevertebal ganglia tucked elsewhere

68
Q

Where are preganglionic cells in the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

lie in brainstem + sacral vertebrae (S1-5)

69
Q

Where are postganglionic nuclei in the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

near/within organs they innervate (unlike sympathetic)

70
Q

Where are sympathetic postganglionic cells?

A

-paravetebral (sympathetic chain, ganglia, sympathetic trunk

71
Q

What happens to heart rate when baroreceptors send signals that blood pressure is high?

A

afferents send impusles to brain stem, excites parasympathetic preganglionic cells

72
Q

What happens when blood pressure is low?

A

Noradrenaline release is reduced

73
Q

Vagus nerve

A

projects directly to neurons in wall of gut (input from parasympathetic)

74
Q

Preganglionic (receptor class)

A

nicotinic receptors (ionotropic)

75
Q

Postganglionic (receptor class)

A

noradrenergic

76
Q

Parasympathetic (receptor class)

A

muscarinic receptors (metabotropic, G proteins)

77
Q

Myenteric plexus

A

controls smooth muscle

78
Q

Submucosal plexus:

A

controls secretions

79
Q

Why are the white communicating rami white?

A

-axons myelinated (of preganglionic neurons)

80
Q

Why are the gray communicating rami gray?

A

axons unmyelinated (of post ganglionic neurons)

81
Q

What do white communicating rami do?

A

-help neurons reach sympathetic chain ganglia

82
Q

What do gray communicating rami do?

A

-help axons reach effectors

83
Q

It there ever an intersection of the somatic and visceral systems?

A

Yes, they do intersect? (EX: peeing?)

84
Q

What is a peduncle?

A

fiber bundles carrying inputs and outputs

85
Q

What are the 3 cerebellar cortical zones?

A
  1. Dentate
  2. Interposed
  3. Fastigial
86
Q

Dentate

A

Input: cerebrocerebellar zone

Projects to: contralateral premotor cortex + association cortices of frontal lobe (planning)

87
Q

Interposed

A

Input: spinocerebellar zone

Projects to: contralateral motor cortex (executing)

88
Q

Fastigial

A

Input: spinocerebellar zone

Projects to: upper motor neurons in ipsilateral brainstem (executing)

89
Q

Where does the vestiublocerebellum project?

A

To the vestibular nuclei

90
Q

Afferent

A

arrives

91
Q

Efferent

A

exits

92
Q

What are the 3 types of peduncles?

A
  1. superior
  2. middle
  3. inferior
93
Q

What is the superior peduncle?

A
  • efferent pathway(mainly)

- made of fibers exiting from deep cerebellar nuclei

94
Q

What is the middle peduncle?

A
  • afferent pathway

- made of fibers carrying information from the cortex (via pons)

95
Q

What is the inferior peduncle?

A

afferent fibers from brainstem + spinal cord

-efferent fibers from eh vestibulocerebellum

96
Q

Do all peduncles carry afferent or efferent information or is one or more “mixed”?

A

-inferior peduncle is mixed afferent and efferent

97
Q

What is the function of the cerebrocerebellum division?

A

influences premotor cortex via the dentate (planning)

98
Q

What is the function of the spinocerebellum division?

A

influences motor cortex via interposed nuclei (execution)

-influences brainstem structures via fastigial nucleus (execution)

99
Q

What is the function of the vestibulocerebellum division?

A

projects directly to vestibular nuclei (adjustment, balance)

100
Q

What are climbing fibers?

A
  • convey input from inferior olive
  • mediates motor learning + involves complex spikes
  • originate in inferior olive vs pontine nuclei
101
Q

What is the climbing fiber loop?

A
  • detect errors + correct them over longer term
  • learning loop
  • monkey learns to compensate for changes
102
Q

Why is light adaptation in rods and cones important?

A
  • sensitivity of phototransduction cascade could lead to early saturation
  • adaption dependent on Ca2+
  • decrease of Ca2+ increases activity of rhodopsinkinase
103
Q

Why is arrestin important?

A

-arrestin interferes with ability of metarhodopsin to activate transducin
(tranducin mediates most amplified step of phototransduction cascade)

104
Q

What are 2 characteristics of rods?

A
  1. code for black and white

2. discs stacked in the membrane

105
Q

What are 3 characteristics of cones

A
  1. faster at conducting receptor potentials
  2. code for color
    - condensed in the fovea
106
Q

Where is the region in the visual field (think in terms of retinal coordinates) in which our acuity is greatest?

A

-acuity is greatest in the fovea

107
Q

What is the fovea?

A
  • highest concentration of cells in foveal pit
  • tightest packing density
  • only cones
108
Q

Cones are _____ in the periphery

A

widely spaced

109
Q

Off bipolar cells like change from ____ to _____

A

brighter to darker

110
Q

On bipolar cells like change from ______ to _______

A

dark to brighter

111
Q

ganglion cells in off bipolar are tonically _____

A

excited

112
Q

ganglion cells in on bipolar are tonically _____

A

inhibited

113
Q

Which cells are involved in generating the center + surround of the receptive field of a bipolar cell?

A

horizontal cells generate surround

114
Q

What are horizontal cells?

A
  • receive excitatory input from photoreceptors (sign-conserving synapses)
  • inhibit (sign-inverting synapse) photoreceptors in return
  • connected to each other via gap junctions
115
Q

most of the visual field is seen by _____

A

both eyes

116
Q

____ side of the brain sees ____ visual field

A

contralateral, ipsilateral

117
Q

What is the pathway for binocular representations of visual field?

A
  • retinal axons travel from eye to thalamus
  • project to cortex
  • myelinated axons of relay cells form thick stripe in V1
118
Q

How do the response properties of cells in retina differ from those of cells in V1?

A

-there is no orientation selectivity in the retina

119
Q

What is an orientation column

A
  • vertically aligned cells across cortical depth
  • share same pref for stimulus orientation
  • overlapping visual fields
120
Q

Ocular dominance column

A

-important for ability to judge depth

121
Q

What is a hypercolumn?

A

-region that represents one point in visual space
(receptive fields are overlapping
-orientation analyzed for all permutations

122
Q

What are the 2 different visual streams?

A
  1. P ganglion cell - ventral

2. M ganglion cell - dorsal

123
Q

What is the dorsal stream? where does it end up?

A
  • “where,” spatial

- parietal lobe

124
Q

What is the ventral stream? where does it end up?

A
  • “what,” form/object recognition

- temporal lobe

125
Q

What do lesions in the dorsal (M) stream lead to?

A

akinetopsia (motion blindness)

126
Q

What doe lesions in the ventral(P) stream lead to?

A
  • achromatopsia (V4)

- prosopagnosia (fusiform face area)

127
Q

What does the middle ear do?

A
  1. Impedance Matching

2. Gating (protect inner ear from loud noises), reduce transmission efficiency of ossicles

128
Q

How would your hearing suffer without the middle ear?

A

-too loud of sounds

129
Q

Why have a pinna?

A
  • grooves/hollows act like filters + resonance chambers
  • alter spectrum of sound that reaches cochlea
  • some amplified, others dampened
130
Q

What is the principal role of the basilar membrane?

A
  • location of (inner) hair cells (rocks up and down)
    • basilar membrane bends hair cells bend
    • K+ enters depolarize (towards)
    • K+ does not enter hyperpolarize (away)
131
Q

What is the principal role the tectorial membrane?

A

location of (outer) hair cells (sheers back and forth)

132
Q

What is the difference in the roles played by inner vs. outer hair cells?

A

Inner hair cells: sends signals to the brain

Outer hair cells: amplification

133
Q

What is the mechanical basis for the hair cell receptor potential:

A
  • basilar membrane rocks up and down
  • tectorial membrane sheers
  • stereocilia of the OHCs are bent in tectorial membrane, depolarized
134
Q

How is tonotopy achieved – what properties (width, stiffness) of the basilar membrane (base vs apex) lead to resonances at different frequencies? How is tonotopy maintained in the central auditory pathway?

A
  • mechanical properties of basilar membrane organizatinos of freq. from high(base) low(apex)
  • each fiber responds best to the frequency that it is most effective in driving its presynaptic hair cell
135
Q

Do the outer, middle and inner ear all help to amplify sound in some way? How or how not?

A

Outer
-pinna, resonance chambers

Middle

  • impedance matching/concentrating force
    • small surface area of the oval window
    • lever system with ossicles

Inner
-outer hair cells amplify sound

136
Q

Bushy cells

A

cells: preserve stimulus timing (Anteroventral Cochlear Nucleus, AVCN)

137
Q

Stellate cells

A

head acts as sound shadow, interaural intensity differences

138
Q

What are the two main ways we localize sound in the azimuthal (horizontal) plane?

A

Low frequencies: coincidence detecting circuits in MSO

high frequencies: head acts as sound shadow, interaural intensity differences

139
Q

Does the pinna help localize sound in the vertical plane?

A

used for monaural sound localization

140
Q

How do (should) the two main types of auditory cortex (core and belt) remind you of the dorsal and ventral streams of visual processing?

A

Core: where pathway
Belt: what pathway

141
Q

What are the two main types of organ in the labyrinth?

A

Otolith organs: utricle + sacculus

Semicircular canals: superior, posterior, horizontal

142
Q

Otolith organs

A

-detect linear acceleration + head position

143
Q

Semicircular canals

A

-signal information about rotational motion

144
Q

What is the main difference between the two otolith organs?

A

Utricular macula plane: roughly horizontal

Saccular macula plane: roughly vertical

145
Q

Amblyopia

A
  • reduced vision through an eye

- even when optics of that eye are ultimately repaired

146
Q

What is strabismus? Name two types.

A

Strabismus: deficits caused by the inability of the two eyes to focus on the same target
Esotropia: one eye deviates inwards
Extropia: one eye diviates outwards

BISC 421 - Module II (14 decks)

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