Studies - Paper 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What was the method of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study?
A
Show people trigrams and then get them to recall the letters following different delays where they count backwards in threes.
2
Q
What were the results of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study?
A
3 second delay - 80% recalled correctly
9 second delay - 30% recalled correctly
18 second delay - 10% recalled correctly
3
Q
What was the aim of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study?
A
To investigate how long information stays in STM
4
Q
What was the aim of Baddeley’s (1966) studies?
A
To find out whether information in LTM and STM is measured acoustically or semantically.
5
Q
What was the methodological difference between Baddeley’s 1966a and b study?
A
1966b had a 20 minute delay after hearing the word list, in this time they did a different task.
1966a recalled the lists immediate after hearing them.
6
Q
What 4 types of lists were used in Baddeley’s (1966) studies?
A
- Acoustically similar
- Acoustically dissimilar
- Semantically similar
- Semantically dissimilar
7
Q
What were the results of Baddeley’s (1966a) study?
A
People recalled more words that sounded acoustically dissimilar than similar.
There was little difference between semantically similar and dissimilar words and their effect on accuracy of immediate recall.
8
Q
What were the results of Baddeley’s (1966b) study?
A
More people recalled semantically dissimilar words correctly than semantically similar words.
There was no difference in accuracy of recall for acoustically similar and dissimilar words.
9
Q
What was the first conditions in Baddeley et al (1975) study?
A
Task 1: tracking a moving spot of light with a pointer
Task 2: imagining a capital letter and going to each corner of the room and staring if the corner is at the top or bottom of the letter or not.
10
Q
What was condition B in Baddeley et al’s (1975) study?
A
Task 1: tracking a moving spot of light with a pointer
Task 2: a verbal task
11
Q
What were the results of Baddeley et al’s (1975) study?
A
Participants performed better in condition B.
12
Q
What contradictory evidence does Baddeley et al’s (1975) study provide in reference to the working memory model?
A
That the Visuo-spatial sketchpad should be split into two separate stores.
13
Q
What was the aim of Baddeley et al (1975) study on the phonological loop.
A
To investigate whether short term verbal memory uses an articulatory system based on rehearsing words.
14
Q
What was the method used for Baddeley et al’s (1975) study on the phonological loop?
A
Participants were given lists of 5 short words and 5 long words. Their memory was tested immediate
15
Q
What were the results of Baddeley et al’s (1975) study on the phonological loop?
A
Participants could recall short words more successfully than long words.
16
Q
What was the conclusion of Baddeley et al’s phonological loop study?
A
Word length effect is seen when trying to remember words by rehearsing them using our inner voice. The long is takes to say the word, the faster it will begin to decay.
17
Q
What was the aim of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
To investigate whether anxiety in EWT affected later information.
18
Q
What was the first condition of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Participants overhear a discussion in a lab about equipment failure. A person emerges holding a pen in grease covered hands.
19
Q
What was the second condition of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Participants overhear a heated and hostile debate between people in the lab. After the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, a person emerges holding a paper knife covered in blood
20
Q
How did Loftus test her participants recollection of the confederate in her 1979 study?
A
Participants were asked to distinguish the person from 50 photos.
21
Q
What were the results of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Condition 1 - 49% recalled the confederate correctly
Condition 2 - 33% recalled the confederate correctly
22
Q
What was the conclusion of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Demonstrated weapon focus, which reduced the participants accuracy.
23
Q
What was a strength of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Lab study - extraneous variables were controlled and it’s reproducible.
Participants were safe from harm.
24
Q
What are the weaknesses of Loftus’s (1979) study?
A
Demand characteristics
Investigator effects
Students used so low population validity and poor generalisability.
25
What was the method use by Christianson and Hubinette in their 1993 study?
They questioned witnesses from 22 bank robberies and compared the recall of those directly threatened (high anxiety) with bystanders (low anxiety).
26
What were the results of Christianson and Hubinette's (1993) study?
1) Those directly threaten had more accurate recall of robbers clothing, behaviour and weapon that bystanders.
2) This recall remained superior 15 months later.
27
What are the conclusions drawn from Christianson and Hubinette's (1993) study?
Recall may be very good in real life, highly stressful situations.
28
What's a strength of Christianson and Hubinette's (1993) study?
Natural study
- high ecological validity
- no demand characteristics
- Opportunity sampling - real life situation
29
What's a weakness of Christianson and Hubinette's (1993) study?
- Situation variables
- Participant variables
- Based on memory
30
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study?
To investigate the impact of leading questions.
31
What was the method of Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study?
After watching a video of two cars colliding, participants were asked to estimate the speed at which the cars were travelling, however different present-tense verbs were used in place of "collided".
Participants were also re-interviewed a week later and asked if they say any broken glass.
32
What verbs replaced "collided" in Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study?
Hit
| Smashed
33
What were the results of Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study?
Participants gave faster estimations of speed if they heard the word "smashed" than words like "hit".
Those who heard "smashed" also claimed they had seen broken glass.
34
What's the aim of Paulesu et al's (1993) study?
To investigate whether the articulatory control processes and the acoustic store are located in different areas of the brain.
35
What was the method for Paulesu et al's (1993) study?
Participants' brains were scanned whilst they:
- stored a series of letters (uses both components)
- judged whether two letters rhymed (uses articulatory control processes)
36
Why might the Czech twins have recovered so easily from privation and severe abuse?
1) they were able to form attachments with each other
| 2) they were discovered earlier than genie
37
Summarise the Czech twins case study.
Twins boys neglected from 18 months by stepmother, kept in a cupboard, discovered at 7, unable, to talk, walk.
Gained average intelligence and generally development after rehabilitation. Progress still made at 31.
38
What was the aim of Genie's case study?
Discover the negative effects of her severe social isolation and whether they were reversible.
39
What was the method used for Genie's case study?
Researchers gather data using observations, testing and interviews with genie and her carers, gathered over several years.
40
What results were gained from Genie's case study?
When cared for by a researcher, genie made good progress and was able to develop relationships with others, poor language skills. This stopped when her mother gained care of her, meaning her progress stopped.
41
Evaluate Genie's study.
Insight into impact of sever isolation if multiple areas of human development.
Could support idea that attachment are essential for healthy adult development and that negative effects are irreversible.
Genie may have suffered brain damage from abuse causing her lack of development.
Her privacy was invade and little concern was given about her welfare.
42
What was the aim of Melzoff and Moore's (1977, 1983) study?
Find out if babies and adults show interactional synchrony.
43
What was the method of Melzoff and Moore's (1977, 1983) study?
Adult models displayed one of three facial expression to the baby in a lab. Baby was recorded and their facial expressions were coded by an independent observer who was unaware which expression they'd seen.
44
In Melzoff and Moore's study, what expressions were shown to the baby?
Tongue protrusion
Mouth opening
Lip protrusion
45
What was the aim of Murray and Trevarthen's (1985) study?
When babies show IS are they copying patterns or trying to communicate?
46
What was the method of Murray and Trevarthen's study?
2 month old babies interacted with their mother via video, the mother either responded as normal, or a video of her was shown where she didn't respond.
The babies responses were recorded ( should get upset if communicating).
47
What were the results of p Meltzoff and Moore's study?
Infants as young as 3 days old show mimicry.
48
What was the conclusion of Meltzoff and Moore's study?
IS may strengthen bonds between baby and carer, for survival.
49
What were the results of Murray and Trevarthen's study?
Babies showed distress when their mother did not show IS.
50
What conclusions were made about Murray and Trevarthen's study?
Supports the idea babies are trying to communicate, but also parents who are poor at IS can upset the baby.
51
What was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study?
To see how attachment changes with age.
52
What was the method of Schaffer and Emerson's study?
Longitudinal over 2 years with 60 babies. Each child was observed every 4 weeks until they were 1 and then once again at 18 months. They assessed if the child was attached to an adult and how many. Babies were observed in natural surroundings by direct observations and records kept by mothers.
53
What were the results of Schaffer and Emerson's study?
No. of babies with attachment increased with age.
87% were attached to more than one person at 18 months.
65% first formed main attachment with their mothers.
54
What evidence from Schaffer and Emerson's study contradicts the learning theory of attachment?
39% of babies weren't primarily attached to whomever fed them.
55
What's a weakness of Schaffer and Emerson's study?
Low temporal validity
56
What evidence did Schaffer and Emerson's study find of the role of fathers in attachment?
75% of babies showed attachment to their father by 18 months.
57
What did Geiger (1996) discover about the role of fathers in attachment?
Fathers tend to engage in more games with children while mothers comfort them.
They may be worse at detecting low levels of distress than mothers.
58
What is an ethical issue with Geiger's (1996) study?
Social sensitive, could upset fathers.
59
What was the aim of Robertson and Robertson's (1971) study?
To see if the type of care received during the separation would affects the child's reaction to the separation.
60
What was the method of Robertson and Robertson's study?
Filmed 5 children who required residential care. 4 stayed with the Robertson's, they saw the house before and got to bring toys and see their fathers in a caring environment. John was in a residential nursery, nurses were busy, John's father did visit, but the environment was unfamiliar.
61
What were the results of Robertson and Robertson's study?
4 children showed some signs of distress but functioned well and didn't reject their mother upon reunion.
John reacted well initially, but began to seek comfort in a teddy, he cried a lot and stopped functioning well. Began to withdraw and rejected mother in reunion. He had outbursts of anger for months after.
62
What conclusions can be made from Robertson and Robertson's study?
Negative effects are not inevitable (challenges Bowlby's MDH).
Good quality emotional care will reduce negative effects.
Some children mag react better to separations than others (temperaments and original attachment).
63
What's a strength of Robertson and Robertson's study?
Films were kept private, study provided rich qualitative data, good ecological validity as its a real life situation.
64
What's a weakness of Robertson and Robertson's study?
Ethical issues with privacy and children being too young to consent.
Small sample size - low population validity
Researchers reviewed data - investigator effects (to appear like they gave good quality care)
65
What are the key stages of Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation study?
When child is alone with carer
When carer leaves the room
With the stranger
On reunion with carer
66
What were the results of Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation?
66% secure
22% insecure-avoidant
12% insecure-resistant
67
What's a strength of Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation?
Lab study - repeatable, extraneous variables controlled
| Other studies back this up and can compare generally.
68
What justification can be made for the moderate stress the child is put under in Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation?
It lasts a short time, children are likely to be separated from their parents regularly.
Procedure is stopped if the child gets too distressed, carer gives consent.
69
What's a weakness of Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation?
Categorising the child as insecure may upset the carer.
Low ecological validity and demand characteristics as its lab.
Children who attend nursery may be categorised incorrectly.
70
What was the aim of Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
Compare data on attachment in children from a range of different countries.
71
What method was used in Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
2000 children, 8 countries, 32 studies.
| Strange situation used to assess all children.
72
What results were seen in Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
Similarities were seen, e.g. secure most common type everywhere p.
Differences like 5% were insecure-avoidant type in Japan but 35% were in Germany.
Differences within cultures.
73
What conclusion was made from Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
Supports Bowlby's theory that secure is most common type.
| Differences between cultures in type suggest nature affects type.
74
What's a strength of Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
Large sample size - increases validity by reducing the impact of anomalies.
75
What's a weakness of Vanljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) meta-analysis?
Some countries had a small sample so it's not fair.
| Doesn't explain variation in type between countries.
76
What was the aim of Takahashi's (1990) study?
Look at the cultural differences in attachment, aimed to compare results to the U.S.
77
What method was used in Takahashi's (1990) study?
60 Middle class 1 year old Japanese infants assessed with strange situation.
78
What were the results of Takahashi's (1990) study?
68% secure
0% insecure-avoidant
32% insecure-resistant
90% cases stopped as child got upset
79
What conclusions were made from Takahashi's (1990) study?
Secure most common in both cultures
Avoidant rarely seen in Japan
Resistant seen more in Japan than US
However in Japan, it's rude to ignore an adult so children may be taught not to.
Children not left alone in Japan so could cause resistant behaviour
80
What's a strength of Takahashi's (1990) study?
Similar sample used to US study - comparisons more valid
Vanljzendoorn found similar results for Japan.
Ethically good, stopped study if child got too upset.
Raised issues in the validity of the strange situation in other countries.
81
What's a weakness of Takahashi's (1990) study?
Large age gap between Ainsworth's and Takahashi's studies.
| Cannot be generalised to all Japanese children.
82
What was the aim of Myron-Wilson and Smith's (1998) study?
Find evidence for the influence of early attachments on childhood relationships.
83
What method was used for Myron-Wilson and Smith's (1998) study?
Questionnaires there used to assess attachment type and bullying in 196 children (7-11 years).
84
What results were found from Myron-Wilson and Smith's (1998) study?
Securely attached children were least likely to be involved in bullying.
Insecure-avoidant were most like to be victims and insecure-resisted were most likely to be bullies.
85
What was the aim of Quinton's (1984) study?
To find evidence for the influence of early attachments on parenting.
86
What method was used in Quinton's (1984) study?
Compared 50 women raised in care with 50 women in a control group.
87
What results were gained from Quinton's (1984) study?
40% of Women raised in institutions were rated poorly as mothers.
11% of the control group were rated poorly as mothers.
88
What conclusions were drawn from Quinton's (1984) study?
Consistent with Bowlby's theory that insecure attachments mah be associated with poor parenting.
However 31% of ex-care mothers were deemed good.
89
What was the aim of Hazan and Shaver's (1987) study?
To test if there was a relationship between childhood attachments and adult relationships.
90
What method was used in Hazan and Shaver's (1987) study?
They conducted a "love quiz" in a newspaper, with a sample of 200 men and 400 women.
Attitudes to love were assessed by measuring their schema, attachment was tested by completing a checklist with parents, current relationships were assessed by asking which description fit them best.
91
What results were found in Hazan and Shaver's (1987) study?
A posti r correlation between attachment type in childhood and adult relationships.
92
What conclusion was made from Hazan and Shaver's (1987) study?
Supports Bowlby's hypothesis, but is retrospective so relies on memory and is open to demand characteristics.
Also some sections are quite simple.
93
What was the aim of Loremz's (1935) study of attachment formation in goslings?
Find out:
- if innate biological processes are involved in early attachment
- if there's a critical period for attachment
- the effects on early attachment on later adult behaviour.
94
What method was used in Loremz's (1935) study of attachment formation in goslings?
Lorenz randomly split a clutch of gosling eggs and had half become attached to him and the other half become attached to their mother.
Lorenz then marked them and viewed who they'd follow.
95
What results were found in Loremz's (1935) study of attachment formation in goslings?
The gosling followed who they'd first seen.
Lorenz also found that early attachment affect sexual behaviour as the goslings tried to mate with him.
Lorenz also discovered a critical period for the goslings to imprint.
96
What conclusions were drawn from Loremz's (1935) study of attachment formation in goslings?
Supports the theory of attachment formation and that they imprint innately.
Supports Bowlby's theory on critical periods and his continuity hypothesis.
97
What practical implications came from Loremz's (1935) study of attachment formation in goslings?
Whooping cranes were able to migrate as they became to attached to microlights.
Orphaned lambs can have a dead lambs pelt sewn on them and can become attached to a mother.
98
What conclusions were drawn from Harlow and Zimmerman's (1959) study?
Attachment is not due to learned association, but comfort.
| Suggested that attachments are instinctive.
99
What did Harlow study in his 1965 experiment?
Effect of raising monkeys in isolation for 3, 6, 12 or 24 months.
100
What did Harlow find in his (1965) study?
Monkeys were disturbed as adults, they were aggressive and self harmed, their sexual behaviour was abnormal and they were abusive parents.
The disturbed behaviour correlated with the length of isolation.
Monkeys isolated for 6 months recovered by 3 years of age.
101
What's a weakness of Harlow and Zimmerman's (1959) study?
Fake mothers had different faces
| Ethical issues galore
102
What's a strength of Harlow and Zimmerman's (1959) study?
Extraneous variables were controlled.
103
What was the aim of Hetherington et Al's (1979 + 1982) study?
To study the consequences of divorce on young children with a longitudinal study and by comparing them to a control group.
104
What was the method of Hetherington et Al's (1979 + 1982) study?
Children around 4 were assessed immediately following divorce, 2 and 4 years after.
All were living with their mother.
105
What were the results of Hetherington et Al's (1979 + 1982) study?
Children showed negative consequences at 4 (more childish).
2 and 4 years after, girls were no different to control group.
Boys were aggressive and less socially skilled.
106
What conclusion was drawn from Hetherington et Al's (1979 + 1982) study?
Challenges Bowlby's MDH as occurred with father.
| Suggests gender differences in how we react to separation.
107
Summarise McCarthy's (1999) study.
Followed up 40 adult women whose attachment type had been assessed in childhood.
Those who were securely attached as children were more likely to have positive friendships and romantic relationships.
More accurate than Hazan and Shaver as it doesn't rely on retrospective self-report.
108
Summarise Belsky and Rovines (1982) study on temperament.
Assessed temperament on newborns, those that showed nervousness where less like to be securely attached when older.
109
Summarise Zimmerman et al's (2000) contradictory evidence to Hazan and Shavers Love Quiz.
Assessed attachment type of 44 children using strange situation, they followed them up at 16 about the quality of their relationships and any significant life events that occured.
Quality at life at 16 was related more to later life events than early child attachment type, so experiences in later life may influence adult relationships.
110
What was the aim of Tizard and Hodges' (1989) study?
To investigate the impact of being raised in an institution that provided good overall care but poor emotional care.
111
What method was used in Tizard and Hodges' (1989) study?
Studied 65 children raised in an institution from 4 months-4 years. It was a longitudinal study compared to a control group who were closely matched by age, sex, location, etc.
Some children were restored to family, adopted or remained in care.
They were assessed at 8 years and 16 years, parents, teachers and peers were also asked for information.
112
What's a methodological issue with Tizard and Hodges' (1989) study?
Many children dropped out (attrition).
| These children could have been systematically different so the study lacks validity.
113
What were initial results were found in Tizard and Hodges' (1989) study?
Initially, children showed abnormal behaviour patterns to adults, they had many secure attachments and high levels of stranger anxiety.
They showed disinhibited attachments upon leaving.
114
What conclusions can be made from Tizard and Hodges' (1989) study?
Contradicts Bowlby's theory of a critical period.
Those adopted could have a social temperament.
Allows us to view effects of poor emotional care.
115
What was the aim of Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
To investigate the short and long term effects of poor quality institutional care and privation on children's social, emotional and physical development.
To investigate the extent to which children could recover if adopted.
116
What method was used in Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
165 children who had been institutionalised from 1-2 weeks of age. All received poor physical and emotional care due to lack of staff and economic conditions in Romania. They were compared with a control group of UK children all adopted before 6 months of age.
Assessed at 4,6 and 11 years of age on social, emotional, cognitive and physical functioning. Involved interviews with parents and teachers.
117
What were the results of Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
Evidence that poor physical care led to stunted growth.
Initially they showed poorer cognitive skills to the control group.
Those adopted after 6 months had disinhibited attachments and showed poorer emotional development.
Suggestions that they had poorer behaviour too.
118
What conclusions were made from Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
There are negative effects of poor institutional care and privation on children's physical and emotional development, however they were able to recover.
119
What's a strength of Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
- Natural opportunity to study the effects of privation, etc. on a large sample.
- Measures were conducted across a range of aspects to give us an idea of the impact of institutional care.
- They were compared to a control group so he could compare privation to poor physical care.
120
What's a weakness of Rutter's (2007) study on English and Romanian Adoptees?
- Results come from bad institution, same results wouldn't come from a good institution.
- We know very little about the children's medical or psychological health before adoption, so we don't know if the negative effects are due to the institution.
121
What did Shute's (1975) study provide evidence for?
Locus of control and resisting conformity.
122
Summarise Shute's (1975) study.
Participant's LOC was tested using questionnaires. They were then put into group with people who were either very liberal or conservative about drug laws.
They found that participants with an internal LOC were less like to be affected by normative social influence.
123
What did Schurz's (1985) study provide evidence for?
Locus of control and resisting obedience
124
Summarise Schurz's (1985) study.
Schurz replicated Milgram's study, asking his participants to take an LOC questionnaire prior. (Due to ethics) participants believed they were giving painful, skin-damaging bursts of ultrasound to the learner.
Schurz found that participants with an internal LOC tended to take more responsibility for their actions.
125
What did Moscovivi et al's (1969) study provide evidence for?
Consistency in minority influence.
126
Summarise Moscovivi et al's (1969) study.
6 participants viewed slides of colours, but they were all varying brightnesses of blue. 2 participants were actors who either:
1- called the slides green on all trials
2- called the slides green or blue varying amounts of time
84% of participants conformed in 1 but less conformed in 2.
Suggests consistency changes the majority viewpoint.
127
What does Nemeth's (1986) study provide evidence for?
Flexibility in minority influence.
128
Summarise Nemeth's (1986) study.
Groups of 4 (one actor) had to decide how much compensation to pay the victim of a ski lift accident. When the actor was dogmatic with the amount, he had no effect on majority but when he compromised a little and offered a slightly higher amount, the minority changed their opinion to a lower amounts.
Supports flexibility.
129
What was the aim of Gabbert et al's (2003) study?
To investigate the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT.
130
What was the method of Gabbert et al's (2003) study?
2 groups of participants, one group saw actual footage of a girl stealing a wallet, the other group saw it from a different perspective (didnt actually see her steal the wallet). Participants from each group were paired up to discuss the case and asked what they'd seen and whether they thought the girl was guilty.
131
What were the results of Gabbert et al's (2003) study?
71% of participants claimed to have seen things they definitely had not.
60% of participants believed the girl was guilty.
132
What was the conclusion of Gabbert et al's (2003) study?
Suggests memory can be altered post event and that EWT gather after the crime is not reliable due to memory impairment between the event and the testimony.
133
What's a weakness with Gabbert et al's (2003) study?
Low ecological validity, people won't have the same levels of anxiety.
Participants were deceived.
134
What was the aim of Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
To investigate the effectiveness of the cognitive interview compared to the standard police interview.
135
What method was used in Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
Two groups of undergraduate students both watched a video of a crime. Half were interviewed using the CROP technique and the other half were interviewed with a standard police interview.
136
What were the results of Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
Groups interviewed with the standard interview technique remembered 50% less details than the CROP group, but they had the same number of incorrect details across both groups.
137
What conclusion can be made about Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
CROP means people are better able to recall correct details.
| Amount improves, not accuracy.
138
What's a strength of Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
Compared to other group.
| Lab study - extraneous variables controlled.
139
What's a weakness of Geiselman's (1985) study on the cognitive interview?
Used students so generalised to one age group - low population validity.
Watched a video - low ecological validity.
Lab study - demand characteristics.
140
Summarise Fisher's (1989) study.
A group of detectives were trained in the CROP technique, their performance was assessed when interviewing genuine witnesses to crimes.
When their performance was compared to pre-training levels, the information gained had increased by 47%.
