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structure 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do metal atoms experience a smaller ENC?

A

this id due to increased atomic size due to the larger number of shells and shielding so there is a weaker attraction

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2
Q

How is sodium chloride formed?

A

one electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine, resulting in an electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

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3
Q

What ions can Na form?

A

it can form Na+ and Na4+, but not Na2+ or Na3+ as second or third ionization energy doesn’t allow an extra electron to be lost

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4
Q

How does attraction between water ions increase?

A

increases with ionic charge, but removing electrons comes with an energy loss, meaning it may not be feasible to lose due to the high ionization energy

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5
Q

What are the oxidation states and colors of Fe, Cu, Pb and Ag?

A

Fe - Fe2+ (yellow) and Fe3+ (orange)
Cu - Cu2+ (blue) and Cu+ (red)
Pb4+ and Pb2+ as well as Sn4+ and Sn2+
Ag forms the ion Ag+

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6
Q

Why are anions less attractive with increased charge?

A

addition of electrons becomes more difficult with increasing negative charge due to increased electron-electron repulsion

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7
Q

What is an ionic bond?

A

electrostatic attraction between the positively charged atom and the negatively charged electrons

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8
Q

What happens when ions have a charge greater than +3?

A

they have a large charge density and increase in covalent character, meaning they polarize negative ions

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9
Q

How does charge affect melting and boiling points?

A

larger charge = higher melting point as there is a stronger bond and electrostatic attraction

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10
Q

How can you tell if a substance has dissolved or not?

A

dissolved - electrostatic attraction between ions is weaker that the ion’s attraction to water
not dissolved - electrostatic attraction between ions is stronger than the ion’s attraction to water

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11
Q

What are properties of transition metals in terms of oxidation states?

A
  • form ions with a range of charges and oxidation states
  • reach their maximum oxidation state when the linear pattern stops and there is a large jump in ionization enrgy
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12
Q

What is the structure for ionic compounds?

A

giant ionic lattice

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13
Q

What is the structure of NaCl?

A

Cl- = smaller radius due to larger ENC
Na+ = larger radius due to smaller ENC

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14
Q

What is lattice enthalpy?

A

energy needed to break or make the ionic bond in a lattice

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15
Q

What is a co-ordination number?

A

number of ions that surround an individual ion
- NaCl has a co-ordination number of 6

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16
Q

How can you increase lattice enthalpy?

A
  • increased ionic charge
  • decrease ionic radius
  • change charge desnity
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17
Q

Why are ionic compounds non-volatile?

A

held in a lattice with no free molecules to break away from the structure to become a gas as it would require a lot of energy

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18
Q

When are ionic compounds soluble?

A

soluble in polar solvents such as water as like substances dissolve

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19
Q

Why do ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points?

A

strong electrostatic attraction between positive metal atom and negative electrons which requires huge amounts of energy to overcome

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20
Q

What does hydrated mean?

A

when ions are surrounded by water ions

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21
Q

What does solvated mean?

A

when water ions are surrounded by other solvents

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22
Q

When is something ionic, covalent or polar covalent?

A

ionic - difference in electronegativity > 1.8
covalent - difference in electronegativity ≤ 0.4
polar - difference in electronegativity is between 0.4 and 1.8

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23
Q

What are the covalent structures?

A
  • giant covalent structures
  • simple molecular substances
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24
Q

What are the exceptions to the octet rule?

A

Be - needs 4 valence electrons
B - needs 6 valence electrons
H - needs 2 valence electrons

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25
Q

Why do ionic compounds conduct electricity?

A

can conduct electricity in molten or dissolved state as the electrons are free to move around the structure and carry charge

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26
Q

What is an expanded octet?

A

atom has more than 8 valence electrons

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27
Q

Why are ionic compounds brittle?

A

crystals break when a force is applied as the pressure forces like charges closer so that they repel each other to the point of breaking

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28
Q

How do you work out % ionic character?

A

( difference in electronegativity / 3.2) x 100

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29
Q

What is the octet rule?

A

tendency for atoms to gain 8 valence electrons to have a full outer shell

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30
Q

Why are period 3 oxides less ionic across?

A

melting points decrease and the the ability to conduct in the molten state decreases

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31
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

electrostatic attraction between a positive nucleus and a shared pair of electrons

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32
Q

How do you draw a lewis diagram?

A
  1. add up the sum of the valence electrons
  2. draw a rough structure
  3. put a pair of electrons between each atom
  4. add pairs to satisfy the octet rule
  5. add double bonds if you run out of electrons
  6. check the electron number is the same as step 1
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33
Q

What is an example of a dative bond?

A

CO - oxygen provides both electrons in the covalent bond so the arrow goes from oxygen to carbon

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34
Q

What is a triple bond?

A

6 electrons are shared by 2 atoms

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35
Q

What is an incomplete octet?

A

central atom has less than 8 valence electrons

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36
Q

What is the relationship between bond length, amount of bonds and enthalpy?

A

shorter bond length - higher bond enthalpy
more bonds - higher bond enthalpy

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37
Q

What is a dative bond?

A

when one atom donates both pairs of electrons
- arrow goes from donator to acceptor

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38
Q

Where does the arrow point in a dative bond?

A

towards the atom accepting the electron
- from least to most electrongative

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39
Q

What is a double bond?

A

4 electrons are shared by 2 atoms

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40
Q

Why do lewis acid-bases lead to the formation of a co-ordination bond?

A
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41
Q

How can transition metals act like lewis acids?

A
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42
Q

What does the VSEPR model do?

A

enables the shapes of atoms to be determined from the repulsion of electron domains around a central atom

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43
Q

What is the shape of a molecule determined by?

A
  • bond angles
  • nature of bond
  • amount of electrons
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44
Q

What is an electron domain?

A

area where electrons are located

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45
Q

What are the key points to the VSEPR theory?

A
  • repulsion applies to electron domains with single, double or triple pairs
  • total number of electrons around an atom determines geometrical arrangements
  • shape of a molecule is determined by the bond angles
  • non-bonding pairs have a higher charge concentration and therefore more repulsion as the electrons aren’t shared
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46
Q

What is the order of pairs from least to most repulsion?

A

most - lone pair - lone pair
middle - lone pair - bonding pair
least - bonding pair - bonding pair

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47
Q

How do you work out the shape of a molecule?

A
  1. draw a lewis diagram and count the number of electron domains
  2. remember that single, double and triple bonds all count as 1 electron domain
  3. electron domains repel each other to a point of minimum or maximum repulsion
  4. shape is determined by angles between electron domains
  5. non-bonding pairs repel more than bonding pairs
    - don’t need to draw the angles accurately, just ensure to label
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48
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 2 electron domains?

A
  • 180 °
  • linear shape
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49
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 3 electron domains?

A
  • 120 °
  • triangular planar
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50
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 4 electron domains; 2 bonding and 2 lone?

A
  • 105 °
  • bent v-shape
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51
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 4 electron domains?

A
  • 109.5 °
  • tetrahedral
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52
Q

What is polarity?

A

difference in electronegativities of bonded atoms

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53
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 4 electron domains; 3 bonding and 1 lone?

A
  • 107 °
  • trigonal pyramidal
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54
Q

What is the shape and bond angle for a molecule with 3 electron domains; 2 bonding and 1 lone?

A
  • 117 °
  • bent v-shape
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55
Q

How does charge link to repulsion?

A

greater charge concentration = greater repulsion - smaller bond angle
- bonds closer to each other but further away from the lone pair

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56
Q

When is a molecule polar or non-polar?

A

polar - difference in electronegativity is greater than 0.4

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57
Q

What are the conditions needed for a molecule to be non-polar?

A

non-polar - no difference in electronegativity (covalent compounds)

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58
Q

What is the bond continuum in terms of transfer of ions?

A

ionic - complete transfer of electrons
polar covalent - partial transfer of electrons
covalent - equal sharing of electrons

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59
Q

What is a net dipole?

A

overall difference between 2 charges

60
Q

What is molecular polarity?

A

polarity of a molecule which depends on the polar bond it contains and the molecular geometry (doesn’t include lone pairs)

61
Q

What are practical uses of polar and non-polar substances?

A
  • biological systems are based on polar covalent molecules in aqueous solutions
  • non-polar substances can remove grease stains
62
Q

What is the melting and boiling point like for polar and non-polar substances?

A

polar - large molecule with high melting and boiling points
non-polar - higher then expected melting and boiling points due to stronger intermolecular forces

63
Q

What are allotropes?

A

different bonding and structures of the same element which have different physical and chemical properties

64
Q

What is nanotechnology?

A

use of nanoparticles in technology

65
Q

What are the properties of silicon dioxide?

A
  • known as silica or quartz
  • each Si has a covalent bond to 4 oxygen atoms and each O atom has 2 Si atoms
  • high melting point and strong
  • insoluble in water
  • doesn’t conduct electricity
66
Q

What are the properties of silicon?

A
  • tetrahedral arrangement in a giant lattice structure
  • covalent bond to 4 other carbon atoms
67
Q

What are the bond enthalpy comparisons?

A

C-C = 346
Si-Si = 226
Si-O = 466
- carbon has the smallest atomic radius, resulting in a greater electrostatic attraction
- silicon is more commonly bonded to oxygen

68
Q

What is catenation?

A

carbon has a higher tendency to bond with other carbon atoms

69
Q

What is graphene -hBN?

A

when carbon atoms are replaced by Boron and Nitrogen

70
Q

What are the uses of graphene -hBN?

A

used in insulation, electronics and cosmetics

71
Q

What is the hybridization of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - sp3
graphite - sp2
graphene - sp2
C60 - sp2

72
Q

How many atoms of carbon are diamond, graphite, graphene and C60 bonded to?

A

diamond - 4
graphite - 3
graphene - 3
C60 - 60

73
Q

What is the electrical conductivity like for diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - none
graphite - good conductor
graphene - good conductor
C60 - low conductivity

74
Q

What is the appearance of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - transparent lustrous crystal - light passes around them
graphite - non lustrous grey crystalline solid
graphene - nearly transparent
C60 - black powder

75
Q

What is the shape of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - tetrahedral
graphite - hexagon parallel layers
graphene - hexagon single layer
C60 - sphere

76
Q

What is the bond angle of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - 109.5
graphite - 120
graphene - 120

77
Q

What is the thermal conductivity like for diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - good
graphite - not good unless forced to conduct in the direction parallel to the crystal layers
graphene - best
C60 - low

78
Q

What is the melting point like for diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - very high
graphite - very high
graphene - high
C60 - low

79
Q

What are the properties of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - brittle and hard
graphite - brittle, soft and slippery
graphene - thickness of 1 atom, strong and flexible
C60 - light and strong, reacts with K to make superconducting crystalline material

80
Q

Why is candle wax solid, petrol liquid and methane a gas?

A

candle wax is solid as it has many weak intermolecular forces between the hydrocarbon chains which add up in strength and require lots of energy to overcome in comparison to liquids and gases

81
Q

What are the uses of diamond, graphite, graphene and C60?

A

diamond - jewellery, ornaments, machinery
graphite - lubricant, electrolysis, pencils
graphene - TEM, photo voltaic cells, touch screens
C60 - lubricants, electronic devices, catalysts and nanotechnology

82
Q

What are the 3 types of intermolecular forces?

A
  1. London Dispersion forces (VDW)
  2. Dipole-Dipole attraction (VDW)
  3. Hydrogen bonding
83
Q

What are Van Der Waals?

A

umbrella term for London Dispersion forces and Dipole-Dipole attraction

84
Q

What is an intermolecular force?

A

forces of attraction between molecules

85
Q

What is an intra-molecular bond?

A

covalent bond between electrons and positively charged nuclei

86
Q

What are London dispersion forces?

A

weakest IMF present in every molecule (atoms with a difference in electronegativity between 0 and 0.4)

87
Q

What is an induced dipole?

A

split charge due to a dipole in another molecule

88
Q

How do LDF’s form?

A
  1. electron move around a molecule
  2. at any time, an electron will be closer to an atom
  3. this causes an instantaneous dipole
  4. electron in neighboring molecule is repelled
  5. causes an induced dipole in the neighboring molecule
  6. London force is attraction between induced and instantaneous dipole
89
Q

What is an instantaneous dipole?

A

split charge caused by movement of electrons

90
Q

What affects the strength of LDF?

A
  • number of electrons = increased number of electrons increases the strength due to increased size and boiling points
91
Q

What is a dipole-dipole attraction?

A

middle IMF with attractive forces between dipoles of 2 molecules - permanent charge separation ( difference in electronegativity between 0.4 and 1.8)

92
Q

Why is hydrogen bonding the strongest?

A

as hydrogen is a small molecule with no inner electron to interfere

93
Q

What affects the strength of dipole-dipole attraction?

A
  • difference in polarity = increased difference in electronegativity means a stronger attraction
  • number of electrons = more electrons means increased attraction
94
Q

What is a dipole-induced-dipole?

A

molecule with a permanent dipole can induce a dipole in a non-polar molecule and form a bond

95
Q

What is hydrogen bonding?

A

strongest IMF = dipole-dipole attraction between H-N, H-O and H-F only (big difference in electronegativity, so the bonding electrons pairs are pulled away from the hydrogen to form air pockets, which explains why solid ice floats on water)

96
Q

How does size affect LDF?

A

larger molecule = more LDF

97
Q

How does polarity affect LDF?

A

greater difference in electronegativity = stronger type of LDF present

98
Q

How does size affect the melting and boiling points?

A

larger molecule = higher melting and boiling point due to increased electrons and more LDF’s forming, requiring more energy to overcome

99
Q

What is volatility?

A

tendency for a substance to vaporize and become a gas

100
Q

What is solubility?

A

ability to dissolve a solute in a solvent to form a solution

101
Q

What is the trend for covalent compounds in terms of volatility?

A

larger molecules have stronger LDF’s, so will require more energy to overcome and therefore harder to vaporize

102
Q

What is solubility like for a polar/non-polar substance?

A

polar - dissolves in polar substances as hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole attraction forms
non-polar - dissolves in non-polar substances as it cannot form the correct IMF

103
Q

What is electrical conductivity like for covalent compounds?

A

cannot conduct electricity as there are no delocalised electrons
- some polar covalent compounds can conduct when dissolved as they disassociate into their charges

104
Q

Why does sand not dissolve in the tide?

A

sand does not dissolve in the tide as it is it a non polar substance and water is polar so it doesn’t form the correct IMF to dissolve as well as having a giant covalent structure which requires lots of energy to overcome

105
Q

What happens to solubility if a non-polar subsatance has 1 polar bond?

A

if a non-polar substance has 1 polar bond, it won’t dissolve in a polar solvent as it can’t form the correct type of IMF

106
Q

What do small or large molecules show in chromatography?

A

large molecules - less soluble, travels less
small molecules - more soluble, travels further

107
Q

What is the stationary phase?

A

the one that doesn’t move - the paper

108
Q

How does IMF and chromatography work?

A
  • paper is 10% made of cellulose and is made out of water
  • when placed in water, it absorbs water to form hydrogen bonds with OH groups from cellulose
  • solute rises from the start line with the water due to capillary action
  • when the solute forms the strongest IMF it can, it stops moving
109
Q

What is Rf values and how do you calculate it?

A

retardation factor - unique values to identify unknown substances

110
Q

What is the mobile phase?

A

the one that moves - solvent

111
Q

What determines solubility of each compound?

A

type of IMF present - hydrogen bonds dissolve and move up the paper but LDF’s don’t dissolve and don’t move

112
Q

What is thin layer chromatography?

A

stationary phase - silica or aluminica (SiO2 or AlO2) is coated into glass or metal (smooth and hard surface) containing polar groups to form hydrogen bonds

113
Q

What is a metallic bond?

A

electrostatic attraction between a lattice of cations and a sea of delocalized electrons

114
Q

What does the strength of a metallic bond depend on?

A

1) charge of cation
2) radius of cation

115
Q

What does position of triangle depend on?

A

electronegativity values

116
Q

What are the properties of metals and why?

A

shiny and lustrous - delocalised electrons reflect light - used in structures and jewellery
good thermal conductivity - closely packed ions and delocalised electrons - pots
good electrical conductivity - delocalised electrons can move around the structure in response to an applied voltage - circuits
ductile and malleable - random, non-directional movement of electrons means the metallic bond remains intact under applied pressure - wires and cables
high melting point - lots of energy required to overcome strong electrostatic attraction to separate atoms - turbine engines

117
Q

What is chemical bonding?

A

best described as a continuum between the ionic, covalent and metallic models, not a discrete model shown by the bonding triangle

118
Q

What is the bonding triangle?

A

used to illustrate the types of chemical bonding

119
Q

Where do elements fit in?

A

along the x-axis

120
Q

What are the properties and bonding of Na, Mg and Al2O3?

A
  • high melting and boiling points
  • electrical conductors
  • ionic metallic oxides
121
Q

What are the properties and bonding of SiO2?

A
  • high melting and boiling points
  • electrical conductors
  • giant covalent oxides of metalloid silicon
122
Q

What are the properties and bonding of P, SO2?

A
  • low melting and boiling point
  • not an electrical conductor
  • covalent non-metal oxides
123
Q

What is AlCl3 classed as?

A

it should come out as more covalent, suggesting a lower melting point

124
Q

How do you plot molecules on the bonding triangle?

A

x-axis = average electronegativity
y-axis = difference in electronegativity

125
Q

What is a composite material?

A

heterogeneous mixture made up of at least 2 materials
matrix - binds
reinforcement - strengthens

126
Q

What happens to the properties of a composite material?

A

each element keeps it’s own properties, leading to a final product with enhanced properties designed for a particular purpose

127
Q

What are examples of composite materials?

A

reinforcement bars - concrete and steel bars
adobe bricks - mud and hay

128
Q

What is an alloy?

A

homogeneous mixture with at least 1 metal in a metallic bond

129
Q

Why are alloys hard?

A

atoms are different sizes so layers are distorted and don’t slide or change shape when pressure is applied

130
Q

How can factors affect the strength of a metallic bond?

A

number of delocalised electrons - more electrons means a stronger electrostatic attraction are formed which requires more energy to overcome
charge of cations - higher charge means more delocalised electrons moving through the lattice with smaller radii as ENC increases, causing a stronger attraction
radius of cation - smaller radius means there is a stronger attraction between electrons and nucleus

131
Q

What are trends of metals down the group and across the period?

A

down the group - larger radii means a weaker attraction between ions and electrons, so less energy to overcome and lower melting point
across the period - greater charge density due to smaller ionic radius, so a stronger attraction and a higher melting point

132
Q

What are properties of transition metals?

A
133
Q

What is a polymer?

A

large molecules or macro-molecules made up of repeating sub units

134
Q

What are properties of polymers?

A

-covalent bonding
- unique ability to form stable bonds with itself, hydrogen and other elements

135
Q

How do the side chains affect the polymer?

A

changes the type of IMF formed which affects the polymer made and the properties it has

136
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of addition polymers?

A

advantages - no waste products as 100% atom economy
disadvantages - requires lots of energy for high heat and pressure which come from fossil fuels

137
Q

What is a repeating unit?

A

a snapshot at a part of a chain which has the part that repeats

138
Q

What are the two types of polymers?

A

natural - protein, starch and DNA
synthetic - plastics

139
Q

What are the properties of plastic?

A

lightweight, low reactivity, water resistant, strong, non biodegradable, made out of cellulose, starch and lignin

140
Q

What does non-biodegradable mean?

A

can’t be broken down by natural processes

141
Q

What does compostable mean?

A

can be broken down along with food and plant matter in specific conditions

142
Q

What does reusable mean?

A

can be used in the same format

143
Q

What does biodegradable mean?

A

can be broken down by microorganisms

144
Q

What is an addition polymer?

A

requires a double bond and makes a new covalent bond with neighboring molecules to form a chain

145
Q

What does recyclable mean?

A

melted down and changed into something else

146
Q

How does polymerization link to atom economy?

A

has 100% atom economy - no waste products

chemistry (28 decks)

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