Stress and Illness

Question 1

What makes stressful events stressful?

Answer 1

• Negative
• Uncontrollable
• Long-lasting
• Ambiguous
• Can’t be dealt with using current resources
• Relevant to important life domains

Question 2

What might common stressors include?

Answer 2

• Small daily hassles (e.g. missing the bus)
• Concerns about work/academic performance
• Relationship problems
• Loss of control over goals
• Financial problems

Question 3

What is the definition of stress?

Answer 3

a relationship between the person and the environment that is perceived by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her wellbeing

Question 4

Who described the transactional theory of stress and coping?

Answer 4

Lazarus and Folkman 1984

Question 5

What does the transactional theory of stress and coping contain

Answer 5

• Environmental inputs (daily stressors and life events)
• Individual differences
• Appraisal differences
• Psychological responses
• Coping responses (i.e. PA or smoking)

Question 6

Describe the social-readjustment rating scale

Answer 6

This shows the impact of life events i.e. marriage, death of a close family member and their related stress levels.

Question 7

Describe the daily Hassles and Uplift Scale?

Answer 7

Common events can be rated as hassle/uplift depending on the situation i.e. your children: either light of your life, or have been brats that day

Question 8

Describe Hassles

Answer 8

Rising prices, noisy neighbours, bad weather, feeling lonely, too many responsibilities, too many things to do. Can add up and undermine coping by creating unmanageable demands

Question 9

Describe Uplifts

Answer 9

Uplifts: Good weather, good relationships with neighbours getting on well with friends, having a laugh. Positive effects on mood and reduce perceived demand.

Question 10

True or false: Hassles more strongly associated with health status than with life-events

Answer 10

true!

Question 11

Experiencing more daily hassles was associated with?

Answer 11

Lower psychological well-being

Question 12

Did daily uplifts make a contribution to health?

Answer 12

No, not independent of hassles

Question 13

Give 2 direct effects of stress, and their associated health consequences

Answer 13

• Reduced functioning of the cardiovascular and immune systems.
• Chronic stress undermines system functioning.

Question 14

Give 2 indirect effects of stress, and their associated health consequences

Answer 14

• Increased health risk behaviours (e.g. smoking, alcohol use, drug use).
• Decreased health promoting behaviours (e.g. physical activity, sleep, diet)

Question 15

What does ego depletion cause?

Answer 15

Lowered executive functioning and poor life choices

Question 16

What did the 1998 exam stress and wound healing study do/show?

Answer 16

• 3.5 mm punch biopsy wound on hard palate of dental students.
• Taken once during the summer vacation and 3 days before a major examination.
• Healing measured using daily photographs and foaming response to hydrogen peroxide.
• Healing was 3 days (40%) longer in exam period

Question 17

Give 2 physiological effects of stress

Answer 17

dry mouth, excessive perspiration, headaches, frequent infections pounding heart, high blood pressure, gastrointestinal problems, stiff neck, lower back pain, chest pain, asthma, arthritis.

Question 18

Give 2 emotional effects of stress

Answer 18

anxiety and worry, depression, fatigue, hypervigilance, impulsiveness, irritability, trouble remembering things.

Question 19

Give a cognitive effect of stress

Answer 19

inability to concentrate or memory problems.

Question 20

Give 2 behavioural effects of stress

Answer 20

teeth grinding, crying, disrupted eating, disrupted sleep, aggression, sexual problems.

Question 21

What were the physical effects of stress for- evolution?

Answer 21

flight and fight response. Evolved to ‘gear us up’ to deal with something which is coming i.e. tiger. About surviving in the moment

Question 22

What is the ANS divided into

Answer 22

sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

Question 23

What is the PNS divided into

Answer 23

sensory/afferent NS and motor/efferent NS

Question 24

What is the sympathetic (ANS) for

Answer 24

• Induces the “Fight or flight” response
• Bronchiole dilation/increased breathing rate
• Increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose, blood flow to skeletal muscles
• Deceases metabolism, reduced digestive functions, immune activity, pain perception, salvia production

Question 25

What part of the body releases catecholamines

Answer 25

adrenal medulla

Question 26

Give two examples of catecholamines

Answer 26

adrenaline and noradrenaline

Question 27

What is the para-sympathetic (ANS) for

Answer 27

* Reduces adrenalin secretion heartbeat, breathing rate, and blood pressure * Reduces perspiration and increased salivation * Returns the body to a state of homeostasis or balance * Promotes relaxation and facilitates energy storage and body regeneration - for future activity

Question 28

Outline the responsibilities of the adrenal medulla

Answer 28

- Secretes catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) - Increased heart rate and blood flow to the muscles - Mobilises glucose into the blood - Suppresses immune function - “fight or flight” response

Question 29

Outline the responsibilities of the adrenal cortex

Answer 29

Produces glucocorticoids (cortisol) Increases glucose in the blood Reduces the immune response

Question 30

Describe the effects of the Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary (SAM) system

Answer 30

* Increased cardiovascular response * Increased respiration * Increased perspiration * Increased blood flow to muscles * Increased muscle strength/activity

Question 31

what does the hormone CRH do

Answer 31

causes secretion of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla

Question 32

Describe the effects of the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA)

Answer 32

* Increased protein and fat mobilisation * Increased access to energy storage * Decreased immune responses * Decreased inflammation

Question 33

What does the hormone ACTH do

Answer 33

causes secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex

Question 34

How do increased catecholamines contribute to chronic stress

Answer 34

Increased catecholamines causes a continual release of catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline) and corticosteroids (e.g., cortisol). This increases HR/BP, exerting increased force on heart muscle walls/circulatory system.

Question 35

Give 3 effects of chronic stress

Answer 35

* Raises the risk of viral infection. * Triggers histamines which can lead to bronchoconstriction in asthmatics. * Increases the risk for diabetes mellitus * Alters the acid concentration in the stomach, which leads to peptic ulcers/ulcerative colitis. * Leads to plaque build-up in the arteries (atherosclerosis), especially if combined with a high-fat diet and sedentary living. * Leads to psychiatric illness (e.g. depression and schizophrenia). * May lead to tumour development and suppression of natural killer (NK) cells, which is actively involved in preventing metastasis

Question 36

How does stress effect the heart

Answer 36

* Heart muscle walls become enlarged damaged (left ventricular hypertrophy) * Heart's main pumping chamber (left ventricle). * Muscle loses elasticity and eventually fails to pump with as much force as needed. * Shortness of breath, fatigue, chest pain, heart palpitations, dizziness. * Higher risk of a heart attack and stroke.

Question 37

How does stress effect the circulatory system

Answer 37

* Blood vessels and arteries become distended/inflamed. * Attracts fat, cholesterol resulting in plaque formation (atherosclerosis). * Plaques rupture causing blood clots which stop the blood supply. * In a cardiac artery this causes death of heart muscle (an myocardial infarction). * In a brain artery causes death of brain cells (a stroke)

Question 38

How can stress lead to depression

Answer 38

* Abnormalities of the HPA axis implicated in depression. * High cortisol levels might make the brain more susceptible to depression in the face of stress, but the specific mechanisms are not known. * Higher morning cortisol level, life events, and vulnerability status predicted depression onset Harris et al. (2000). * Serotonin transporter gene predicted depression in interaction with major stressors (Caspi et al., 2003).

Question 39

Describe the association between cortisol secretion and depression

Answer 39

* Compared to controls, depressed group had a larger cortisol awakening response than at risk (p = .03) or control (p = .01) groups. * Depressed group had higher net increase in cortisol secretion in response to the task compared to control.

Question 40

Describe the first line response of phagocytes

Answer 40

- Phagocytes migrate from the blood stream to the site of infection and consume pathogens. - Can respond within hours - Display antigens on cell their wall

Question 41

Describe the second line of response

Answer 41

- B cells and T cells (called lymphocytes) respond to these antigens. - Lymphocytes have up to 100,000 receptors but these all have the same structure so antigen-specific cells are needed through cell multiplication - Takes days

Question 42

Describe cell mediated immunity

Answer 42

1. Pathogen enters the blood stream 2. Monocyte identifies pathogen and presents the pathogen to a t-helper cell (white blood cell) and releases interleukin-1 which stimulates t-helper activity 3. T helper cell release interleukin-2 which triggers proliferation of t-cell 4. T cell lead to proliferation of cytotoxic killer cells which attack pathogen

Question 43

Describe antibody mediated immunity

Answer 43

1. B cells attach themselves to pathogens and produce specific antibodies. 2. These antibodies attach themselves to the pathogen. 3. Causes pathogens to burst. 4. Also slows down and marks the pathogen so other cells can more easily kill it. 5. Antibodies also assist in the formation of B memory cells. 6. B and T memory cells remember the pathogen to accelerate future immune responses

Question 44

Purpose of Killer T Cells

Answer 44

directly attack specific antigens by secreting toxins. Also attack cancer cells.

Question 45

Purpose of Helper T Cells

Answer 45

stimulate other specific T cells or B cells to multiply.

Question 46

What do T cells secrete

Answer 46

Cytokines

Question 47

What do some B cells become?

Answer 47

Plasma cells which produce antibodies

Question 48

Is antibody or cell-mediated immunity more affected by chronic stress?

Answer 48

Cell-mediated, as it inhibits formation of B and T cells, by the shrinkage of the thymus gland

Question 49

What did the Stone (2010) paper show about stress and colds

Answer 49

* 17 participants were exposed to a rhinovirus and were individually isolated for 5 consecutive days. * Cold symptoms, mucus weights, and tissue use were monitored on a daily basis. * 12 subjects developed clinical colds. * Mean number of reported major life events for the previous year was higher for those who developed colds (p < .05).