stress Flashcards

Question

Daily Hassles

Answer 1

Daily Hassles are the minor but frequent aggravations and annoyances of everyday life that combine to cause us stress. It has been argued that these could give a better understanding of how stress can make us ill than Life changes.

Answer 2

Kanner (1981) developed a scale of 117 events that annoy people daily, 100 middle class adults had to complete the hassles scale for 9 months. They also completed a life changes scale twice (before the study began and after the study finished). Finally the participants completed a scale to measure the psychological symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Answer 3

Found significant positive correlations between hassle frequency and psychological symptoms for both men and women. The more hassles they experienced, the more severe their psychological symptoms were. Conclusion: They also found that Hassles were a better predictor of psychological problems, than the Life changes scores.

Answer 4

Many studies have found a link between the SRRS and illness e.g Rahe (1970), 2500 male sailors given SRRS to measure life changes experienced in the last 6 months. For the following 6 months they kept records of their health. The LCU score was correlated with illness, Small but significant positive correlation +0.118. However as its only a small correlation it suggests stress only plays a small part in causing illness.

Answer 5

quick and easy to use, therefore should be able to obtain a large sample size. This means results should be generalisable. However, issues with social desirability bias for example people may not want to admit to ‘sexual dysfunction’. Therefore there could be issues with internal validity.

Answer 6

Research is correlational SRRS - It cannot be claimed that the stress of life changes causes illness. It is possible that some other variable (for example, having less money) could cause this relationship. Also some of the life change events may result from illness rather than causing the illness in the first place e.g. changes in eating and sleeping habits, sexual difficulties and increased trouble with a boss or family members could all be the result of illness. Therefore cause and effect cannot be inferred. Daily Hassles A final problem with the Daily hassles scale being linked to illness is that research is correlational. This means that we cannot infer cause & effect as it cannot be claimed that the stress of daily hassles causes illness (as the research suggests). Instead it may be that being ill magnifies the effect of hassles which at other times may be insignificant. Therefore the direction of causality between stress & illness is not clear.

Answer 7

SRRS - Ps just tick off events they have experienced, this gives no indication of their perception of the event. An event may be more/less stressful for an individual depending on their circumstances E.g. pregnancy gets a score of 40 regardless of circumstances. Also does not take into account personality. E.g. Type A and hardiness have both been linked to perception of stress. DAILY HASSLES - A problem with using the Daily hassles scale is that Individuals may perceive hassles differently; so what may be a hassle to one person may not be to another. One psychologist attempted to overcome this issue by revising the scale allowing people to rate each hassle on 4-point scale. This allows the individual’s perception of stress surrounding the event to be considered. It was found that Ps with higher scores had more symptoms of stress (flu, sore throat, headaches). Thus, supporting the role of daily hassles in illness, even when individual differences are taken into account.

Answer 8

SRRS - You are asked to recall past events and illness over the last 1-2 years. SO forgetting may occur. Supporting this issue, Rahe investigated the test-retest reliability of the SRRS and found that scores vary depending on the time interval between testing. Also, ill people remember more negative events. Therefore there may be memory recall biases. DAILY HASSLES - A problem with the use of the Daily hassles scale is that it relies on retrospective data which may lead to an inaccurate recall of events. Research has suggested that a person’s current state of mind affects their memory of past events. E.g. if they are feeling low then they are likely to recall more negative than positive events that have happened. However, some researchers have overcome this by using a diary method to rate hassles on a daily basis. Therefore using the diary method may increase accuracy of recall & validity of daily hassle scores.

Answer 9

A strength is that there is supporting evidence that daily hassles causes stress and ill-health. Some studies combine the hassles and uplifts scales because it is thought that daily uplifts are a boost which will make people feel better. One such study showed that people are likely to experience an increase in daily hassles and a decrease in daily uplifts a few days before the onset of a respiratory infection e.g. a cold. Therefore there is supporting evidence that daily hassles are linked to stress and ill-health.

Answer 10

1- Workload (work overload and under load) 2 - The role of control 3 - Repetitive work 4 - Social isolation

Answer 11

We are focusing on the issues of workload and control. They have been combined in the job-strain model of workplace stress. The model proposes that the workplace creates stress and illness in two ways: High workload (creating greater job demands), Low control (e.g. over deadlines, procedures etc.).

Answer 12

to investigate whether work stressors like high workload and low control increase stress related physiological arousal and stress related illnesses.

Answer 13

Compared 14 “finishers” (finish off the wood at the last stage of processing timber) with control group of 10 cleaners in a Swedish sawmill (all males). Finishers job was machine-paced (so low control), isolated, very repetitive yet highly skilled, & the finishers’ productivity determined the wage rates for the entire factory (high workload). Cleaners work was more varied, largely self-paced (high control), & allowed more socialising with other workers, they also had less responsibility. Measured stress hormones in urine on work days & rest days. Recorded stress-related illness & absenteeism.

Answer 14

Urine analysis showed: finishers had more stress hormones (e.g. adrenaline) on work days than on rest days, and higher levels of stress hormones than cleaners. Finishers showed higher levels of stress-related illness (headaches, higher BP, more stomach disorders) and higher levels of absenteeism than the cleaners. CONCLUSION High workload and low control create chronic stress which leads to the production of stress hormones and the development of stress related illness. Thus supporting the Job-strain model.

Answer 15

Research has positive economic implications for both workers & for businesses as suggests ways to reduce stress. How could the Swedish sawmill reduce stress amongst it’s workers? E.g. In this mill moving to a fixed salary structure that is not dependent on productivity, rotating jobs to introduce variety and improving job control meant stress would be decreased and productivity of the factory would increase.

Answer 16

The study was a quasi experiment carried out in a natural environment. We cannot infer cause and effect, It may not be the job that caused illness but other factors as there were many extraneous variables that were not controlled: It may be that certain people who are vulnerable to stress (e.g. Type A) may be attracted to high-risk demanding jobs, such as finishing in a sawmill. Therefore, the greater illness in finishers might actually be due to their personality. Alternatively, it could be factors outside of the work environment, such as money troubles and poor housing, which are causing the stress and stress related illness. Therefore, it is difficult to isolate the workplace as the main cause of stress.

Answer 17

The sample was ethnocentric as it was a study of sawmill workers in Sweden. A study reviewed cross-cultural research into workplace stressors & found that lack of job control was found to be stressful in individualist cultures but in collectivist cultures control is seen as less desirable. Therefore the idea of job control may be a western notion reflecting individualist ideals and the results may not generalise to non-western cultures. The conclusion that lack of control leads to stress in the workplace is therefore beta culturally biased.

Answer 18

The sample used was biased. All participants were male (androcentric bias) the findings cannot be generalised to women. Stress is less likely to lead to illness in women as female hormones such as oestrogen protect against the negative effects of stress. Also, there is evidence to suggests that males and females cope with stress differently. Female’s strategy of seeking social support may be more successful than males who often bottle up their feelings. Ignoring such differences means that the study is beta gender biased.

Answer 19

Biological = involves paying attention to physical information from your body (eg heart beat or blood pressure). Psychological = involves conditioning where successful behaviour is rewarded & therefore continues. Aims to turn physiological processes such as heart rate into signals that a client then learns to control. Client does this by applying techniques they have learnt such as relaxation & cognitive restructuring.

Answer 20

Biofeedback deals with the body’s physiological response to stress due to the arousal of the sympathetic branch of the ANS. Heart rate, blood pressure etc are not normally under our voluntary control as they are automatic responses controlled by the ANS. However, biofeedback allows clients to exert voluntary control over these (normally) involuntary behaviours. This can occur if clients are made aware of what is happening in the ANS using technology that allows us to see or hear our physiological functioning.

Answer 21

``` 4 Processes: Relaxation Feedback Operant conditioning Transfer ```

Answer 22

Client is taught relaxation techniques. Eg learning to tighten & relax specific muscles groups. The techniques should reduce activity of the sympathetic branch of the ANS.

Answer 23

Client is attached to machines that provide information about activity of the ANS. There are many such machines which convert physiological activity into a visual or auditory sound eg: Heart rate machines – showing activity as a visual or auditory tone, EMGs – converts electrical activity of muscles into a tone of varying pitch, EEGs – shows brain activity on a screen, Skin conductance response – measures amount of sweating. Client then practises relaxation techniques whilst seeing/listening to the feedback.

Answer 24

Clients should be able to learn how to use this feedback to make physiological adjustments. Eg slowing down their heart rate might reduce the pitch of a tone on a machine. This is rewarding & reinforces the behaviour. Thus further relaxation should be possible.

Answer 25

The client needs to learn to transfer the skills learned to the real world. They must use their relaxation techniques in response to stressful situations (without the use of their feedback machines).

Answer 26

Jemaine et al (2011): Doctors were trained using a biofeedback machine. They used it 3x a day for 28 days & completed a stress questionnaire. The mean stress score of users dropped over the course of the study suggesting that biofeedback can be effective for stress in the workplace. In 1998 four monkeys were trained to raise & lower their body temperature & reduce muscle tension using biofeedback! Shows that biofeedback does not depend on conscious thought.

Answer 27

Some argue that it could be the relaxation techniques themselves that work, in which case the equipment is unnecessary. One study tested this by investigating children who suffered from tension headaches. One group used biofeedback to help them relax. The other group were taught relaxation techniques only. After 3 months headache frequency dropped by 55% in each group suggesting biofeedback equipment is unnecessary. However, improvements were greater in the biofeedback group after 1 & 3 years. Suggests relaxation techniques can be effective on their own but biofeedback is beneficial as it makes relaxation easier (rather than being a stress management techniques in itself).

Answer 28

It is a non-invasive technique (unlike drugs which alter the body) so there will not be any side effects. Therefore it is suitable for children who can’t be treated with drugs & can’t cope with the demands of SIT. It also provides a long term way of reducing stress & can be used for future stressors. As biofeedback has a positive effect in lowering activity of the sympathetic branch of the ANS it can prevent stress related illness.

Answer 29

This is a psychological method of stress management. We can’t stop many of the stressors that we face in life but we can change the way that we think about these stressors. Negative thinking can lead to negative outcomes such as anxiety and depression but positive thinking leads to positive attitudes & feelings. These positive thoughts reduce the stress response & help us cope in the future. There are 3 phases to SIT. Each phase focuses on practical steps needed to help the client. The phases are not completely distinct & may overlap. There may be some working backwards to an earlier phase to refresh before moving on .

Answer 30

Client and therapist work together to identify & understand the actual cause of stress. The client learns to break down stressors into smaller manageable parts. The client is taught to view perceived stressors as challenges that can be solved. This allows clients to become more realistic about the demands on them & their ability to cope.

Answer 31

Clients are taught skills & strategies for coping with their stress. Such skills could include relaxation techniques, social skills, use of support systems, time-management & the use of coping statements. The skills taught are both cognitive & behavioural. The client is taught to think in a different way & they will be able to learn new behaviours to allow them to deal with the stress.

Answer 32

Clients are given the opportunity to apply their newly learned coping skills in different situations. Role play may be used first until the client is confident to apply their skills in the real world. The therapist’s involvement lessens as the client gains greater control over their stress.

Answer 33

Actually addresses the stressor by looking at the source of the stress & teaching coping strategies. Therefore equips people with skills to deal with the present stressors & also future stressors SIT puts the person in control which may also reduce stress. It is also effective because it combines both cognitive & behavioural therapies.

Answer 34

Shown to be effective. For public speaking, stress of police work & life events e.g. divorce. This is because it teaches practical techniques for dealing with the problem and addresses the actual cause of stress. Therefore SIT has practical applications.

Answer 35

SIT is seen as a demanding therapy as it requires high levels of motivation & commitment. Therefore it is best suited for long term stressors & businesses (workplace stress - due to cost). SIT involves changing cognitions & behaviour which is difficult to do. The 3rd phase (real life application) can be challenging as it might be difficult to use coping strategies in a highly stressful situation. Therefore for acute stressors drugs are likely to be more effective.

Answer 36

It is difficult to assess the effectiveness of therapies such as SIT because we depend on subjective reports from clients. Clients often exaggerate their problems at the beginning because they want to convince the therapist that they really do need help. So in the conceptualisation phase they may make their problem look worse than it actually is. At the end of the treatment clients are grateful for the help they were given & therefore minimise any remaining issues. This is known as the hello-goodbye effect.

Answer 37

These reduce the biological effects of stress. They aim to reduce the anxiety associated with stress by reducing the unpleasant physiological symptoms. Two types of drugs: Beta blockers, Benzodiazepines.

Answer 38

BBs act on the sympathetic nervous system which activates the fight or flight response. Mode of action: BBs work by blocking beta receptors on the heart & other parts of the body that are usually stimulated by noradrenalin & adrenalin. This will slow heart rate & decrease the strength of its contraction, thus reducing blood pressure. Other activity in the ANS will also reduce e.g. breathing rate. This will make people feel calmer BBs do not affect the brain.

Answer 39

Long term stressors often lead to hypertension = higher risk of stroke & CVDs so BBs can reduce this risk. As BBs don’t affect the brain they are suitable for people who want to eliminate the symptoms of stress but still stay alert e.g. stage performers, musicians, surgeons. BBs increase hand-eye co-ordination & would help golfers & snooker players, but for this reason they have been banned by the International Olympic Committee.

Answer 40

A review of research concluded that BBs are effective for treating everyday anxieties e.g. public speaking & exam nerves. Lockwood studied over 2000 musicians & found that 27% took BBs. The musicians said they felt that they performed better & music critics also judged their performances to be better when they had taken BBs. However, another study looked at the effect of BBs on Ps doing a maths test, BBs did reduce heart rate compared to Ps taking a placebo. BUT did not reduce Ps perceived sense of stress. Therefore BBs are only useful for reducing physiological effects of stress.

Answer 41

BZs e.g. Valium & Xanax. Minor tranquilizers which lessen anxiety by reducing arousal in the central nervous system, BZs do this by enhancing activity of the neurotransmitter GABA.

Answer 42

GABA has a quietening effect on many of the neurons in the brain, GABA reacts with GABA receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. When GABA binds onto these receptors it opens a channel that increases flow of chloride ions into the postsynaptic neuron. Chloride ions make it harder for the postsynaptic neuron to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters thus slowing down its activity (an inhibitory effect). BZs boost the action of GABA allowing more chloride ions to enter the neuron. Resulting in lower nervous system activity, which will make the person feel calmer. GABA binds to GABA receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. So this causes a reduction in action potentials. This is because GABA causes the chloride ion channels to open allowing negatively charged chloride ions to enter the neuron. Causing the postsynaptic neuron to become negatively charged.

Answer 43

BZs work by enhancing this inhibition, causing even less neural activity in the brain. BZ drug molecules bind to a receptor site on the GABA receptor, alongside GABA. This causes the chloride channels to allow more chloride ions to enter the neuron. Making it even more negatively charged. Resulting in less action potentials. This also makes the neuron less responsive to other neurotransmitters.

Answer 44

Have been shown to be 60% effectiveness in reducing feelings of anxiety & panic. They have almost immediate effects therefore they are suitable for acute stressors. E.g. experiencing violent crime or sudden bereavement.

Answer 45

BZs create dependency for 2 reasons: Over time people need a higher dosage of the drug to get the original effects (due to tolerance). Withdrawal symptoms occur when people try to stop taking them (can even occur when on the drugs if you have reached tolerance!) E.g. tremors, irritability and insomnia. Also sickness & diarrhoea. Nowadays GPs should restrict such drugs to short courses (usually up to 4 weeks).

Answer 46

BZs also have side effects such as drowsiness and impaired memory, and other effects such as changes in appetite or sex drive. Therefore they are not appropriate for all patients.

Answer 47

Allows people to live normal lives and improves their quality of life. People prefer taking drugs to psychological therapy as taking medicine is more familiar. Drugs require little effort from the patient. This is very different from Psychological treatments where patients have to be actively involved in their treatment. However drugs remove control from the patient, as the doctor makes all the decisions about what drug should be taken & for how long. This lack of control can actually increase feelings of stress & anxiety.

Answer 48

Only treat the symptoms of anxiety and not the cause. So when patient stops taking drugs symptoms will return e.g. there is a 90% relapse rate when BZ medication is ceased. Therefore drugs are only a short term solution. Psychological treatments (e.g. SIT) offer a more long term cure as they actually treat the cause of the problem. Drugs should therefore be used to manage acute stressors such as the shock of bereavement.

Answer 49

Friends and family are important sources of support as they provide social networks. Social networks vary in size and the strength of support they offer. It is possible that someone with a relatively small social network can get a great deal of support. Additionally, just because someone has a large social network does not guarantee good support. Being very closely involved in a small network of close friends, relatives & colleagues may provide greater support than spreading yourself too thinly.

Answer 50

Practical & tangible support. Includes physically doing something to help (providing money or driving you to the doctors) or providing information (giving advice or feedback). This support could be provided by anyone – not just friends & family. This is a problem-solving approach where the focus is on doing something.

Answer 51

Focuses on how someone is feeling rather than providing practical help. Includes expressing warmth, concern, affection & love. Aim is to make the stressed person feel better & lift their mood by listening & empathising. This kind of support is less likely to be provided by strangers (unless in an emergency situation). This is an emotion-focused approach.

Answer 52

Increasing a person’s sense of self worth so that they feel more capable about coping with their stress. We could do this by expressing our confidence in them which should in term increase their own confidence in their ability to cope. This support is unique to close relationships.

Answer 53

Procedure: They phoned 404 healthy adult Ps every evening for 14 days & asked how many hugs they had received that day. Ps also completed a questionnaire to assess perceived social support. Stress was measured in terms of daily interpersonal conflicts (arguments/disagreements) Ps were then placed in quarantine & exposed to the common cold virus. They monitored who became ill. Findings: Ps who experienced the most interpersonal conflict (ie stress) were more likely to become ill but those who perceived that they had greater social support had a significantly reduced risk of illness. Hugs accounted for 1/3 of the protective effect of social support, Ps who had the most hugs were less likely to become infected & if they did so their symptoms were less severe. Conclusion: Perceived social support acts as a buffer against stress. Hugs provided a physical way of providing emotional support

Answer 54

Fawzy & Fawzy (1993). Ps with skin cancer were randomly allocated to a support group for 6 weeks (attended one session a week) or a control group. The support group provided an opportunity for patients to express their feelings (emotional support) & also get advice & information (instrumental support) 6 years later the support group patients were more likely to be alive & free of cancer. Shows the benefits of social support can be long lasting.

Answer 55

Supporting evidence that pets can be used effectively for social support and help people to cope with stress. Allen (2003) reviewed research findings on pets. He reported that the presence of pets: reduced blood pressure in children reading aloud, buffered the elderly against life event stressors & reduced risk of CVDs. Another study even found that talking to pets was more effective than talking to people in reducing the stress response! This has important implications for the healthcare system, particularly for helping those without family/friends to give social support.

Answer 56

Social support is not always beneficial. Although emotional support is usually welcomed from friends & relatives, we might value instrumental support more from medical professionals. But there could also be times when emotional support from friends or relatives is not welcome e.g. they might insist on accompanying you to a hospital appointment when you would rather go alone thus imposing their support. Sometimes the presence of others might increase physiological stress activity e.g. if a friendship is strained. One study reviewed 64 studies of married couples. The benefits of social support were related to the quality of the relationship.

Answer 57

The research we have looked at is beta culturally biased because it ignores differences in social support between cultures. However one study compared Asian students (collectivist society) living in Australia with Australian students (individualistic).They found that the individualistic coping style was more instrumental than the coping style of collectivist students who used more emotional & esteem support. Therefore, there was a difference in coping styles but the longer the Asian students lived in Australia, the more they began to use instrumental coping styles.