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Stats exam 1 > Stats exam 1 > Flashcards

Stats exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Research

A

Develop ideas and plan how to reach a goal

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2
Q

Pre-positivist

A

Observe and understand

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3
Q

Positivist

A

Active attempts to change outcomes

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4
Q

Post-positivism

A

Action can occur later

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5
Q

Hypothesis

A

Simple assumption about the nature of things

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6
Q

Theory

A

Set of interrelated hypotheses used to explain phenomenon

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7
Q

Construct

A

Abstract theoretical concept

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8
Q

Operationalization

A

Steps to be taken to measure your construct

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9
Q

Data

A

Information gathered to be analysed

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10
Q

Parsimony

A

Prefer simplest possible explanation

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11
Q

Nominal

A

Qualitatively different categories (e.g. natural hair colour)

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12
Q

Ordinal

A

Ordered categories on a continuum (e.g. satisfaction ratings - dissatisfied, neutral, satisfied)

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13
Q

Ratio

A

Numeric answers with equal intervals (true 0!) (e.g. height in cm)

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14
Q

Interval

A

Numeric answers with equal intervals (no true 0!) (e.g. temperature in Celcius)

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15
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which the scores from a measure are free from systematic error (the accuracy of a method in measuring what it is supposed to measure)

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16
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which the scores from a measure are free from random error (the consistency of a measure)

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17
Q

Observed score

A

True score + systematic error + random error

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18
Q

Convergent validity

A

Are alternative measures of the same construct comparable?

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19
Q

Discriminant validity

A

Are measures of different constructs in fact different?

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20
Q

Face validity

A

Does the measure ‘look’ okay?

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21
Q

Univariate analyses

A

Descriptions, representations and tests of one variable at the time

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22
Q

Bivariate analyses

A

Description of a relationship between two variables.

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23
Q

Multivariate analyses

A

Descriptions, representations and tests of more than two variables at the time

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24
Q

External validity

A

The extent to which the results of the research can be generalised to the population/setting of interest

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25
Q

Internal validity

A

The extent to which conclusions can be drawn about the causal effects among the variables (to what extent does x cause y)

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25
Q

Construct validity

A

The degree to which the specific variables accurately reflect or measure the constructs

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26
Q

Which has higher INTERNAL validity: randomized or non-randomized designs

A

Randomized - participants are randomly assigned to levels of the IV

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27
Q

Which has higher EXTERNAL and CONSTRUCT validity: randomized or non-randomized designs?

A

Non-randomized

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28
Q

Variance BETWEEN participants

A

Different groups have different conditions and the groups are compared to each other (use random assignment to assign participants to groups)

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29
Q

Variance WITHIN participants

A

Each participant experiences different conditions - participants as own comparison

30
Q

Population

A

Aggregate of all cases that meet a designated set of specifications

31
Q

Sample

A

Selection of some elements from a population

32
Q

Element

A

Single member of the population

33
Q

Census

A

Number of all elements in the population

34
Q

Selection (threat to internal validity)

A

Pre-existing differences between participants in different experimental conditions. Occurs when there is no random assignment

35
Q

Maturation (threat to internal validity)

A

Participants/things measured change over time (boredom, decay, growth, development, etc.) (e.g. measuring concentration in children, but older children concentrate better)

36
Q

History (threat to internal validity)

A

Interruption from an unwanted source affects DV (e.g. room getting warmer during a concentration test, which affects concentration)

37
Q

Test effects (threat to internal validity)

A

The observation changes what it observes (e.g. due to repetition, subjects learn to do a concentration test faster (i.e., memory is measured instead of concentration))

38
Q

Instrumentation (threat to internal validity)

A

The observation is not done consistently - changes in measurement procedures/devices (e.g. measuring concentration and using a new concentration test on day two of experiment)

39
Q

Mortality (threat to internal validity)

A

Drop out (e.g. participants do not return for the post-(treatment) test)

40
Q

Selection by maturation (threat to internal validity)

A

Different groups mature differently (e.g. examining groups of adolescents according to birth-assigned sex; testing effect of protein intake on development of strength)

41
Q

Simple random (probability sampling)

A

Every element has an equal and independent chance of selection

42
Q

Stratum (sub-population)

A

Subset of the population defined by additional criteria

43
Q

Probability sampling

A

Every element of a population has a known chance of being included in the sample

44
Q

Stratified random sampling (probability sampling)

A

Population is divided into distinct strata based on specific criteria, then samples are drawn from each stratum separately and combined

45
Q

Cluster sampling (probability sampling)

A

Used for large population or geographically dispersed ones - create a list of clusters and select using simple/stratified random sampling

46
Q

Systematic sampling

A

A random sample, with a fixed periodic interval, is selected from a larger population (e.g. every 5th, 10th, 15th element is selected)

47
Q

Convenience sampling / Haphazard sampling (non-probability sampling)

A
  • Select elements because they are at hand/easiest to access
  • Prone to bias
48
Q

Quota sampling (non-prob sampling)

A
  • Selection of elements based on certain characteristics in the population (e.g. equal amounts of men and women)
  • Bias through personal selections for convenience
49
Q

Purposive sampling (non-prob sampling)

A
  • Handpick cases believed to be representative on a population
  • Compromises generalizability of findings
50
Q

Snowball sampling (non-prob sampling)

A
  • Multistage sampling technique - initially small and it expands as participants recruit others
  • Start with a stratified random sample
51
Q

Why use non-probability sampling?

A
  • More economical
  • Increased internal validity (but decreased external)
  • Used for insight and ideas, not generalizability (useful in psychology)
52
Q

Operational definition

A

Procedure used to measure variables

53
Q

Manipulated variable

A

Changed during experiment (IV)

54
Q

Measured variable

A

Observable, non-touched (DV)

55
Q

Manipulation check

A

Procedure where effects of manipulated variables are measured to ensure it effectively alters the intended construct
- confirms convergent validity
- can affect unintended construct

56
Q

Repeated measures design (randomized)

A
  • exposes same participants participants to multiple treatments, allowing for variation to appear within the same individual
  • randomly assigned to different conditions
  • efficient and requires less participants (detects more individual fluctuations and biases)
57
Q

Limitations and drawbacks of randomized experiments

A
  • Experimental artifacts -> unintended effects on DV caused by experimental setting and not the IV
  • Increased internal validity but decreased external -> findings are difficult to generalise
  • “college sophomore” problem -> many experiments are conducted with college students so findings are not representative of the broader population
58
Q

What is the aim of survey research?

A

To describe the distribution of attitudes, behaviours, and other characteristics within groups and examining their relationships
- NON EXPERIMENTAL (describes relationships, doesn’t establish causality)

59
Q

Sources of error in survey research

A
  • Coverage (some of the population is not in the sample - bias)
  • Sampling (random differences between people)
  • Measurement (bias from the way constructs are assessed)
  • Non response (bias from low response rates - sample isn’t representative)
60
Q

Survey designs (2 of them)

A
  • Cross-sectional surveys –> data collected in a single point in time to estimate the prevalence of characteristics in a population
  • Panel survey –> data collected from the same participant at multiple points in time to assess the stability or change (more costly but increases internal validity)
61
Q

Modes of data collection in surveys

A

Questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews

62
Q

Pros and cons of questionnaires

A

PROS:
- Cost effective
- Flexible for respondents
CONS:
- Interviewer bias and low response rates
- Anonymity of internet surveys leads to low accuracy
- Lack of control over answers

63
Q

Pros and cons of face-to-face interviews

A

PROS:
- Ideal for open-ended responses and lengthy interviews
- High response rates
- Suitable for specific needs e.g. no internet/visual aids etc.
CONS:
- High cost and presence of interviewer = bias
- Difficult to access gated communities

64
Q

Pros and cons of telephone interviews

A

PROS:
- Cost effective
- Efficient
- Reduced interviewer bias
CONS:
- Declining response rates
- Limited rapport with interviewee
- No visual aid
- Some questions may be too complex to do over the phone

65
Q

Key ideas in non-experimental research

A
  • No planned manipulation or intervention
  • Sometimes can turn into quasi-experimental
  • Useful when an event has already occurred
    0 It can complement experimental research by exploring unplanned events
  • Opportunistic and flexible
  • Includes surveys, questionnaires, observational, and archival research
66
Q

Main idea surrounding naturalness in research

A

observational and archival methods to offer unobtrusive ways to study behaviour (participants are unaware of certain parts)

67
Q

What are the 3 dimensions of naturalness in research?

A
  1. Behaviour: occurs independently of researchers influence
  2. Setting: Context not created for research purposes i.e. public spaces –> makes participants act more naturally
  3. Event: Incidents that happen without research intervention
68
Q

What are collateral reports (indirect method of measurement)

A

Someone other than the participant provides information about the participant
- detects biases in self-reports
- Sometimes third-party reports disagree and require more research
- Increases the cost of study and has longer recruitment

69
Q

What is observation (indirect method of measurement)

A
  • Does not rely on participants = unbiased judges
  • Take note of subtle, nonverbal cues
  • Requires unobtrusive observation
70
Q

What are psychological measures (as an indirect method of measurement)

A
  • interplay of physiological systems (endocrine/cardiovascular)
  • despite knowing, the participants cannot control the outcome
  • Real time measurement
  • Overwhelming information, numerous control variables, lots of expertise needed
  • Expensive and sensitive equipment
71
Q

Sampling frame

A

List of all elements

72
Q

What factors affect reliability?

A
  1. Errors can cancel out when multiple items are used
  2. Increased variation on the measured construct increases reliability
  3. Mi
73
Q

Criteria to create good questions for surveys

A
  • TERMINOLOGY –> avoid jargon and ambiguity
  • AVOID DOUBLE DENIAL –> no denial at all is best
  • KISS –> Keep It Short and Simple but specific
  • Avoid multi-dimensional questions
  • Use OBJECTIVE and non-suggestive language

Stats exam 1 (3 decks)

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