Sampling

Question 2

Which has higher INTERNAL validity: randomized or non-randomized designs

Answer 2

Randomized - participants are randomly assigned to levels of the IV

Question 3

Which has higher EXTERNAL and CONSTRUCT validity: randomized or non-randomized designs?

Answer 3

Non-randomized

Question 4

Variance BETWEEN participants

Answer 4

Different groups have different conditions and the groups are compared to each other (use random assignment to assign participants to groups)

Question 5

Variance WITHIN participants

Answer 5

Each participant experiences different conditions - participants as own comparison

Question 6

Selection (threat to internal validity)

Answer 6

Pre-existing differences between participants in different experimental conditions. Occurs when there is no random assignment

Question 7

Maturation (threat to internal validity)

Answer 7

Participants/things measured change over time (boredom, decay, growth, development, etc.) (e.g. measuring concentration in children, but older children concentrate better)

Question 8

History (threat to internal validity)

Answer 8

Interruption from an unwanted source affects DV (e.g. room getting warmer during a concentration test, which affects concentration)

Question 9

Test effects (threat to internal validity)

Answer 9

The observation changes what it observes (e.g. due to repetition, subjects learn to do a concentration test faster (i.e., memory is measured instead of concentration))

Question 10

Instrumentation (threat to internal validity)

Answer 10

The observation is not done consistently - changes in measurement procedures/devices (e.g. measuring concentration and using a new concentration test on day two of experiment)

Question 11

Mortality (threat to internal validity)

Answer 11

Drop out (e.g. participants do not return for the post-(treatment) test)

Question 12

Selection by maturation (threat to internal validity)

Answer 12

Different groups mature differently (e.g. examining groups of adolescents according to birth-assigned sex; testing effect of protein intake on development of strength)

Question 13

Simple random (probability sampling)

Answer 13

Every element has an equal and independent chance of selection

Question 14

Probability sampling

Answer 14

Every element of a population has a known chance of being included in the sample

Question 15

Stratified random sampling (probability sampling)

Answer 15

Population is divided into distinct strata based on specific criteria, then samples are drawn from each stratum separately and combined

Question 16

Cluster sampling (probability sampling)

Answer 16

Used for large population or geographically dispersed ones - create a list of clusters and select using simple/stratified random sampling

Question 17

Systematic sampling

Answer 17

A random sample, with a fixed periodic interval, is selected from a larger population (e.g. every 5th, 10th, 15th element is selected)

Question 18

Convenience sampling / Haphazard sampling (non-probability sampling)

Answer 18

• Select elements because they are at hand/easiest to access
• Prone to bias

Question 19

Quota sampling (non-prob sampling)

Answer 19

• Selection of elements based on certain characteristics in the population (e.g. equal amounts of men and women)
• Bias through personal selections for convenience

Question 20

Purposive sampling (non-prob sampling)

Answer 20

• Handpick cases believed to be representative on a population
• Compromises generalizability of findings

Question 21

Snowball sampling (non-prob sampling)

Answer 21

• Multistage sampling technique - initially small and it expands as participants recruit others
• Start with a stratified random sample

Question 22

Why use non-probability sampling?

Answer 22

• More economical
• Increased internal validity (but decreased external)
• Used for insight and ideas, not generalizability (useful in psychology)

Question 23

Repeated measures design (randomized)

Answer 23

• exposes same participants participants to multiple treatments, allowing for variation to appear within the same individual
• randomly assigned to different conditions
• efficient and requires less participants (detects more individual fluctuations and biases)

Question 24

Limitations and drawbacks of randomized experiments

Answer 24

• Experimental artifacts -> unintended effects on DV caused by experimental setting and not the IV
• Increased internal validity but decreased external -> findings are difficult to generalise
• “college sophomore” problem -> many experiments are conducted with college students so findings are not representative of the broader population

Question 25

What is the aim of survey research?

Answer 25

To describe the distribution of attitudes, behaviours, and other characteristics within groups and examining their relationships - NON EXPERIMENTAL (describes relationships, doesn't establish causality)

Question 26

Sources of error in survey research

Answer 26

- Coverage (some of the population is not in the sample - bias) - Sampling (random differences between people) - Measurement (bias from the way constructs are assessed) - Non response (bias from low response rates - sample isn't representative)

Question 27

Survey designs (2 of them)

Answer 27

- Cross-sectional surveys --> data collected in a single point in time to estimate the prevalence of characteristics in a population - Panel survey --> data collected from the same participant at multiple points in time to assess the stability or change (more costly but increases internal validity)

Question 28

Modes of data collection in surveys

Answer 28

Questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews

Question 29

Pros and cons of questionnaires

Answer 29

PROS: - Cost effective - Flexible for respondents CONS: - Interviewer bias and low response rates - Anonymity of internet surveys leads to low accuracy - Lack of control over answers

Question 30

Pros and cons of face-to-face interviews

Answer 30

PROS: - Ideal for open-ended responses and lengthy interviews - High response rates - Suitable for specific needs e.g. no internet/visual aids etc. CONS: - High cost and presence of interviewer = bias - Difficult to access gated communities

Question 31

Pros and cons of telephone interviews

Answer 31

PROS: - Cost effective - Efficient - Reduced interviewer bias CONS: - Declining response rates - Limited rapport with interviewee - No visual aid - Some questions may be too complex to do over the phone

Question 32

Key ideas in non-experimental research

Answer 32

- No planned manipulation or intervention - Sometimes can turn into quasi-experimental - Useful when an event has already occurred 0 It can complement experimental research by exploring unplanned events - Opportunistic and flexible - Includes surveys, questionnaires, observational, and archival research

Question 33

Main idea surrounding naturalness in research

Answer 33

observational and archival methods to offer unobtrusive ways to study behaviour (participants are unaware of certain parts)

Question 34

What are the 3 dimensions of naturalness in research?

Answer 34

1. Behaviour: occurs independently of researchers influence 2. Setting: Context not created for research purposes i.e. public spaces --> makes participants act more naturally 3. Event: Incidents that happen without research intervention

Question 35

What are collateral reports (indirect method of measurement)

Answer 35

Someone other than the participant provides information about the participant - detects biases in self-reports - Sometimes third-party reports disagree and require more research - Increases the cost of study and has longer recruitment

Question 36

What is observation (indirect method of measurement)

Answer 36

- Does not rely on participants = unbiased judges - Take note of subtle, nonverbal cues - Requires unobtrusive observation

Question 37

What are psychological measures (as an indirect method of measurement)

Answer 37

- interplay of physiological systems (endocrine/cardiovascular) - despite knowing, the participants cannot control the outcome - Real time measurement - Overwhelming information, numerous control variables, lots of expertise needed - Expensive and sensitive equipment

Question 38

Criteria to create good questions for surveys

Answer 38

- TERMINOLOGY --> avoid jargon and ambiguity - AVOID DOUBLE DENIAL --> no denial at all is best - KISS --> Keep It Short and Simple but specific - Avoid multi-dimensional questions - Use OBJECTIVE and non-suggestive language