Statistical reasoning

Question 1

In regard to B, if A had not occurred, B would not have occurred
Have to be a brother to be an uncle. What kind of condition is this?

Answer 1

Necessary condition

Question 2

In regard to B, A is enough to guarantee that B occurs. What type of condition is this?

Answer 2

Sufficient condition

Question 3

Statistical propositions

Answer 3

Propositions that present quantitative evidence about a category of things

Question 4

total

Answer 4

the entire number of items in a class S or the sum of their values on a variable P

Question 5

Ratio

Answer 5

the total expressed as a unit of another class (a total expressed in relative terms)

Question 6

Frequency

Answer 6

the number or proportion of Ss that have some particular value on a variable P

Question 7

Distribution

Answer 7

the number or proportion of Ss that have each of the values (P, Q, R) on some variable

Question 8

mean

Answer 8

the sum of the values that the Ss have on a quantitative variable P, divided by the number of Ss

Question 9

Median

Answer 9

The middle value of the Ss on a quantitative variable P

Question 10

Absolute frequency

Answer 10

Tell actual number of Ss that are Ps

Question 11

Relative frequency

Answer 11

Tell us proportion of Ss that are Ps

Question 12

Proxy variable

Answer 12

variable that affects result but is not measured/directly relevant in data

Question 13

Internal validity

Answer 13

certainty around cause and effect of members in study

Question 14

External validity

Answer 14

can the generalisation hold for a wider group

Question 15

Statistical generalisation

Answer 15

aiming for a representation of a larger sample (want quantitative diversity and use random sampling)

Question 16

Can be 95% sure that our claim i will fall within this probability (e.g. 5% of 46 = likely to be within 41 and 51)

Answer 16

Margin of error

Question 17

How you choose the sample has effect on how random it is (e.g. testing test scores from first 10 to arrive at class)

Answer 17

Selection bias

Question 18

How you word questions has effect on randomness of sample (e.g. do you support war or intervention)

Answer 18

Testing biases

Question 19

When random sampling consider:

Answer 19

Margin of error
Testing biases
Selection biases

Question 20

Priming

Answer 20

expose to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious guidance/intention

Question 21

confounding variable

Answer 21

undesirably affects outcome as third unknown variable

Question 22

Experimental vs observational

Answer 22

Can’t control all variables so important to know difference

Question 23

bigger the effect

Answer 23

more like there is a causation, rather than a correlation

Question 24

Statistical correlations

Answer 24

Specific type of relationship between two variables e.g. average income and education years

Question 25

Correlation does not automatically imply…

Answer 25

causation