stable factors

Question 1

sex of parent

Answer 1

• Endendijk 2016- A meta-analysis examining parental control strategies found negligible differences between how mothers and fathers control their children. The study concluded that both parents employ similar levels of control, with only slight variations that are not statistically significant.
• Play differences- A study by Tamis-LeMonda et al. (2004) found that mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in their levels of playfulness during interactions with their children. Both parents’ playfulness was associated with lower levels of negativity in their children.
• Conversely, research by Paquette (2004) suggests that fathers are more likely to engage in physical, spontaneous, and playful activities with their children, while mothers tend to participate in more structured play. This distinction in play styles may offer children a diverse range of developmental benefits.

Question 2

age of child

Answer 2

• Biggest predictor
• Parental Involvement and Child Age
• A study by Pettit et al. (2001) examined how parental involvement varies with the child’s age and its impact on conduct problems. The researchers found that parental involvement in children’s activities was most predictive of conduct issues during adolescence (ages 13-16). This suggests that as children grow older, the nature and extent of parental involvement adjust to address emerging behavioral challenges.
• Parenting Knowledge and Age-Appropriate Expectations
• Understanding child development stages is crucial for parents to set age-appropriate expectations and employ suitable discipline strategies. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2016) reported that parents knowledgeable about developmental milestones are less likely to hold unrealistic expectations, leading to more effective parenting practices.
• Longitudinal Associations Between Parenting and Child Development
• Research by Lansford et al. (2023) explored how parenting practices evolve as children age and how these changes affect child development. The study highlighted that earlier parenting behaviors, assessed when children were aged 10-12 and 12-14, have lasting effects on developmental outcomes, emphasizing the dynamic nature of parenting across different child ages.
• In summary, a child’s age is a significant factor influencing parenting practices. Parents tend to modify their involvement, expectations, and disciplinary approaches to align with their child’s developmental stage, thereby promoting healthier behavioral and emotional outcomes.

Question 3

personality of parent

Answer 3

• A scoping review by Prinzie et al. (2009) examined the relationship between the Big Five personality traits of parents and their parenting styles. The study found that higher levels of extraversion, agreeableness, and openness in parents were associated with authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth and responsiveness. Conversely, higher levels of neuroticism were linked to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, which may involve inconsistency and overreactivity.
• Parental Personality and Positive Parenting
• Belsky and Barends (2002) explored how parental personality affects positive parenting practices. Their research suggested that parents with positive personality traits, such as emotional stability and agreeableness, are more likely to engage in supportive and nurturing behaviors. These positive parenting practices contribute to better social and emotional development in children.
• Minimal Differences in Parenting Behaviors
• While parental personality significantly influences parenting styles, some studies suggest that these effects may vary depending on other factors, such as cultural context and family dynamics. For instance, research by Kerr et al. (2009) indicated that the impact of parental personality on parenting practices might be moderated by the child’s temperament and the overall family environment.

Question 4

prior experiences

Answer 4

• Madden et al., 2015- Studies have demonstrated that parenting behaviors are often passed down through generations. A UK birth cohort study found that both mothers and fathers tend to replicate the parenting styles they experienced during their own upbringing. This intergenerational transmission suggests that early childhood environments play a crucial role in shaping future parenting approaches.
• Rowell et al., 2022- Adverse childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, have been linked to negative parenting outcomes. A systematic review revealed that parents with a history of ACEs are more likely to exhibit less emotional availability and engage in harsh parenting practices. These behaviors can adversely affect their children’s development and well-being.
  Moreover, research indicates that higher parental ACE scores are associated with developmental delays in children, particularly in communication and motor skills. This underscores the long-term impact of parental childhood experiences on offspring development
• American academy of pediatrics 2015- Despite the potential negative effects of ACEs, the presence of protective factors can mitigate these impacts. Supportive relationships, effective stress management, and positive social networks can enhance resilience, enabling individuals to adopt healthier parenting practices

Question 5

age of parenting

Answer 5

• Impact of Maternal Age on Parenting
• Studies have found that maternal age at childbirth can affect parenting styles and children’s educational achievements. Research indicates that children born to older mothers often experience more positive developmental outcomes, potentially due to increased emotional and financial stability (Goisis et al., 2017). Conversely, children of teenage or very young mothers may face more challenges, possibly linked to socioeconomic factors and limited parenting experience (Goisis et al., 2017).
• Influence of Paternal Age
• While much research focuses on maternal age, studies on paternal age have also been conducted. Some research suggests that advanced paternal age does not significantly impact child internalizing behaviors, indicating that older fathers may not adversely affect certain aspects of child development (McGrath et al., 2014). Other studies suggest that advanced paternal age is associated with impaired neurocognitive outcomes during infancy and childhood (Saha et al., 2009).
• Parental Age and Parenting Styles
• Parental age can influence the adoption of specific parenting styles. For instance, older parents may have more resources and life experience, potentially leading to more authoritative and supportive parenting approaches (Milkie et al., 2003). In contrast, younger parents might face challenges such as financial instability or limited support systems, which can affect their parenting practices (Weaver et al., 2016).
• Considerations
• It’s important to note that while parental age can influence parenting practices, various factors, including socioeconomic status, education, and cultural background, also play significant roles. Therefore, the relationship between parental age and parenting is complex and multifaceted.

Question 6

family structure

Answer 6

Family structure
* Single / two-parent families
* 16% of UK families were ‘lone parent families’
(ONS, 2023)
* Early studies of single parents not encouraging
(e.g., Biller, 1974) but focus shifted to processes
rather than structure as determinants of parenting
* More on single parents next week…
* Number of children in family
* UK average is 1.7 children per family
* Family size linked to discipline practices (Wagner et al.,
1985)

also lecture 5

Question 7

marital status

Answer 7

Close, supportive relationships linked to
sensitive and positive parenting (Cowan & Cowan,
1992; Grych, 2002)

• Unhappy / discordant marriages linked to
  less consistent practices; less involvement
  (Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988)
• Linked to parent-child conflict too (Erel & Burman,
  1995)

It can be said that a `first generation’ of research has successfully demonstrated the increased probability for children’s disorders associated with marital discord, including effects on cognitive, social, academic, and even psychobiological functioning (e.g., Ellis & Garber, 2000;