contextual factors

Question 1

employment

Answer 1

• McHale (2005) examined the impact of maternal employment on family dynamics and parenting roles. Their research suggests that when mothers are employed, fathers often increase their involvement in parenting, leading to a more active role in child-rearing. This shift is attributed to the necessity for fathers to share parenting responsibilities due to the demands of dual-earner households. Additionally, the study highlights that work-related stress can spill over into family life, potentially reducing the quality of parent-child interactions and overall family dynamics. Thus, maternal employment not only influences the distribution of parenting roles but also affects the emotional climate within the family.
• Hawkins 2008- Long hours of maternal employment, rather than lack of money may impede young children’s access to healthy foods and physical activity. Policies supporting work-life balance may help parents reduce potential barriers.
• Parental employment can enhance family income and access to resources, contributing positively to children’s development. However, the stress associated with long working hours or non-standard shifts may detract from parenting quality, potentially introducing stress into children’s lives (Heymann & Earle, 2001).
• Hsin 2014- We find that working mothers trade quantity of time for better “quality” of time. On average, maternal work has no effect on time in activities that positively influence children’s development, but it reduces time in types of activities that may be detrimental to children’s development. Stratification by mothers’ education reveals that although all children, regardless of mother’s education, benefit from spending educational and structured time with their mothers, mothers who are high school graduates have the greatest difficulty balancing work and childcare. We find some evidence that fathers compensate for maternal employment by increasing types of activities that can foster child development as well as types of activities that may be detrimental. Overall, we find that the effects of maternal employment are ambiguous because (1) employment does not necessarily reduce children’s time with parents, and (2) not all types of parental time benefit child development

Question 2

stress

Answer 2

• Mistry et al., 2007-
• Stressed parents less nurturing, supportive-
• Parental stress significantly influences parenting practices, often leading to less effective parent-child interactions. Research indicates that higher levels of parenting-related stress are associated with increased negative parenting behaviors, such as harsh discipline and reduced warmth (Deater-Deckard, 1998). Additionally, stress can impair parental sensitivity, diminishing a parent’s ability to respond appropriately to their child’s needs (Booth et al., 2019). This diminished sensitivity may contribute to the development of behavioral problems in children, creating a cyclical pattern where child behavior issues further elevate parental stress (Neece et al., 2012)
• Khan 200- for example, evidence shows that low socioeconomic status1,13–16 and the absence of social support17,18 are associated with maternal mental health problems such as depression and anxiety
• Mistry et al., 2007- The researchers found that individual stressors—such as social challenges, financial difficulties, and limited access to healthcare—were each associated with an increased risk of poor mental health among mothers. Moreover, the presence of multiple concurrent stressors further elevated this risk, suggesting a cumulative effect on maternal well-being. These findings underscore the importance of addressing a range of stressors to support the mental health of mothers with young children.

Question 3

social support

Answer 3

• A study by McLoyd (2002) found that mothers experiencing low levels of social support were more likely to engage in harsh disciplinary practices, characteristic of authoritarian parenting. The absence of a supportive network can increase parental stress, leading to stricter and less responsive parenting behaviors.
• Conversely, higher levels of perceived social support are associated with positive parenting behaviors. Research by McConnell et al. (2011) demonstrated that parents who perceive greater social support exhibit increased warmth and monitoring toward their children. This supportive environment fosters better parent-child relationships and promotes healthy child development.
• A study by Bakhos et al. (2024) examined the role of partner support in the context of cumulative childhood interpersonal trauma (CCIT) and its impact on parental stress. The findings suggest that both received and provided partner support can mitigate the effects of CCIT on parental stress, highlighting the importance of a supportive partner relationship in promoting effective parentin
• Perceived partner support has a significant impact on mothers’ mental health and may serve as a protective factor against parental burnout and depression. A study by Bakrania et al. (2021) found that higher levels of perceived partner support were associated with lower levels of maternal depression and stress, emphasizing the role of partner support in fostering maternal well-being

Question 4

neighbourhood

Answer 4

• A study by Lippold et al. (2014) examined the relationship between neighborhood quality and parental monitoring among youth aged 10 to 18. The findings suggest that parents residing in disadvantaged neighborhoods may face challenges in effectively monitoring their children, potentially due to increased stressors and reduced social cohesion within the community
• Research by White et al. (2013) explored how neighborhood and housing disorder affect parenting behaviors. The study found that higher levels of neighborhood disorder were associated with increased parental psychological distress. This distress, in turn, led to more frequent use of harsh and inconsistent discipline strategies and lower parental warmth. These findings highlight the indirect effect of neighborhood conditions on parenting through elevated parental stress
• Klebanov et al. (1994) investigated the impact of neighborhood poverty on parenting behaviors, specifically focusing on parental warmth. The study revealed that neighborhood poverty exerts a unique negative influence on parental warmth, even when controlling for family socioeconomic status. This suggests that the broader neighborhood environment plays a critical role in shaping parenting practices beyond individual family circumstance

Question 5

neighbourhood 2

Answer 5

• Protective Parenting and Independence Research indicates that in high-risk neighborhoods, parents may adopt a protective parenting style characterized by reduced local involvement and lower levels of neighborhood social support and informal social control. This strategy aims to equip children with the skills necessary to navigate their environment independently, promoting resilience and self-sufficiency
• Conger 2010- The Family Stress Model suggests that in disadvantaged neighborhoods, certain parenting behaviors, such as increased strictness or reduced supervision, may serve as protective factors. These practices can help children develop coping mechanisms and autonomy, which are crucial for managing the challenges associated with their environment.