Sports - Lower Extremity (Complete) Flashcards
What are the arthroscopic hip portals and structures at risk?
[AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014]
- Anterior
- Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
- Femoral nerve
- Femoral artery
- Anterolateral
* Superior gluteal nerve - Posterolateral
* Sciatic nerve - Midanterior
* Lateral femoral cutaneous nerves
During hip arthroscopy, what nerve is at risk due to traction and the perineal post?
[AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014]
Pudendal nerve
- Can result in:
- Hypoaesthesia of the perineum, scrotum and glans penis
- Erectile dysfunction
- Urinary incontinence
What are the indications for hip arthroscopy?
[Sports Health. 2017; 9(5): 402–413.]
- Central compartment
- Labral tears
- Chondral pathology
- Ligamentum teres pathology
- Septic arthritis
- Loose bodies
2. Peripheral compartment - Femoroacetabular impingement
- Subspine impingement
- Synovial disorders
- Capsular disorders
- Psoas tendon disorders
3. Peritrochanteric compartment - Greater trochanteric pain syndrome
- External snapping hip/iliotibial band disorder
- Deep gluteal space
- Ischiofemoral impingement
- Proximal hamstring disorders
- Sciatic nerve disorders
What are the contraindications to hip arthroscopy?
[Sports Health. 2017; 9(5): 402–413.]
- Advanced OA
- Ankylosis
- Acetabular and/or femoral dysplasia
- Severe deformity
* Retroversion, SCFE, Perthes - Obesity (relative)
- Neurological injuries/disorders (relative)
* Eg. pudendal neuralgia or peroneal or sciatic nerve palsy
What are the most common complications following hip arthroscopy?
[Bone Joint J. 2017 Dec;99-B(12):1577-1583]
- Nerve injury (0.9%)
- Pudendal > LFCN > sciatic > common peroneal > femoral
- Traction injuries include sciatic, common peroneal and femoral [Muscles Ligaments Tendons J. 2016 Jul-Sep; 6(3): 402–409.]
- Compression injuries include pudendal nerve
- Portal placement injuries include LFCN
2. Iatrogenic injury (0.7%) - Chondral > labral
3. HO (0.6%)
4. Adhesions (0.2%)
5. Infection (0.2%) - Superficial > deep
6. Other - DVT, perineal skin damage, hematoma, broken instrument, incomplete reshaping, femoral neck fracture, hip instability, iliopsoas tendinitis, AVN, ankle pain, arthrofibrosis, dislocation
What is the most common major complication following hip arthroscopy?
[Bone Joint J. 2017 Dec;99-B(12):1577-1583]
Intra-abdominal fluid extravasation
What is the innervation of the acetabular labrum?
[BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2014, 15:41]
Branch from nerve to quadratus femoris and obturator nerve
- Contains:
- Free nerve endings for nociception
- Nerve end organs (Pacini, Golgi, Ruffini corpuscles) for proprioception
- Higher concentration in:
- Anterosuperior and postersuperior labrum
- Articular side more so than the capsular side
What is the blood supply to the acetabular labrum?
[J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010 Nov 3;92(15):2570-5]
Periacetabular vascular ring
- Originates from
- Superior and inferior gluteal vessels
- Medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries
- Intrapelvic vascular system.
What is the function of the hip labrum?
[Journal of Biomechanics 33 (2000) 953-960]
- Deepens the acetabulum and extends the coverage of the femoral head
- Contributes to a negative pressure vacuum effect which adds stability to the hip joint
* Greater force required to distract joint - Provides a seal against fluid flow in and out of the intra-articular space enhancing lubrication mechanisms
* Encapsulates the fluid in the joint - Limits the rate of fluid expression from the cartilage during loading which enhances the cartilages ability to carry load and limit stresses on the cartilage
What is the Seldes classification of hip labral tears?
[Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001 Jan;(382):232-40]
Type 1 – “Detachment”
- Detachment of the labrum from the articular hyaline cartilage at the transition zone
Type 2 – “Intrasubstance”
- One or more cleavage planes of variable depth within the substance of the labrum
What are the causes of hip labral tears?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2017;25:e53-e62]
- Trauma
- FAI
- Dysplasia
- Hip hypermobility/capsular laxity
- Degeneration
How can you classify damage to the ligamentum teres, labrum and articular cartilage during hip arthroscopy?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2017;25:e53-e62]
- Domb classification of ligamentum teres tears
- Grade 0 = No tear
- Grade 1 = <50% tear
- Grade 2 = >50% tear
- Grade 3 = 100% tear
- Seldes Classification of labral tears
- Grade 1 - chondrolabral junction tear
- Grade 2 - intrasubstance tear
- ALAD (acetabular labrum articular disruption) Classification
- Grade 1 - softening of the adjacent cartilage
- Grade 2 - early peel of cartilage
- Carpet delamination
- Grade 3 - large flap of cartilage
- Grade 4 - loss of cartilage
4. Outerbridge classification - Grade 0 - normal cartilage
- Grade 1 - cartilage with softening and swelling
- Grade 2 - partial thickness defect with fissures on the surface that do not reach subchondral bone or exceed 1.5cm in diameter
- Grade 3 - fissuring to the level of the subchondral bone in an area with a diameter larger than 1.5cm
- Grade 4 - exposed subchondral bone
Describe the decision making algorithm when considering arthroscopic labral debridement vs. repair vs. reconstruction
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2017;25:e53-e62]
- Stable torn labrum
- Acetabuloplasty not needed = selective debridement
- Acetabuloplasty needed = repair
- Unstable torn labrum
- Viable tissue = repair
- Nonviable tissue, young patient = reconstruction
- Poor vascularity or advanced age = selective debridement
- Mostly calcified torn labrum
- Advanced age = selective debridement
- Young = reconstruction
What are the 3 main types of FAI?
- Cam impingement – femoral based abnormality
- Pincer impingement – acetabular based abnormality
- Combined/mixed-type
What are the features of a cam-lesion?
- Aspherical femoral head
- Reduced head-neck offset
- Characteristic ‘bump’ at the head-neck junction
- Pistol grip deformity
Where is the typical cam-lesion located?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2013; 21(suppl 1):S20-S26]
Anterosuperior head-neck junction
What are the features of the pincer-lesion?
[J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95:82-92]
- Global overcoverage
* Coxa profunda, coxa protrusio - Focal overcoverage
* Cephalad retroversion - Acetabular retroversion
What femur orientation contributes to FAI – anteversion or retroversion?
Femoral retroversion
What radiographs and radiographic findings are important in assessing FAI?
[DeLee & Drez’s, 2015]
- Radiographic views
- AP pelvis
- Lateral view
- Frog-leg lateral, Dunn views, cross-table lateral
- False profile view
- Signs of pincer-lesion
- Crossover sign [AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014]
- Normally the anterior lip of the acetebulum lies medial to the posterior lip and converge at the superolateral aspect of the acetabulum
- With retroversion the anterior lip proximally lies lateral to the posterior lip and distally lies medially creating the crossover sign
- Prominent ischial spine sign
- Normally the ischial spine is hidden behind the acetabulum, if it appears more prominent it indicates acetabular retroversion
- Posterior wall sign
- Posterior rim of the acetabulum lies medial to the center of rotation of the femoral head indicating retroversion
- Lateral center edge angle
- Formed by a vertical line and a line connecting the femoral head center with the lateral edge of the acetabulum
- LCEA >40 suggests pincer-lesion
- Os acetabulum
3. Signs of cam-lesion [JAAOS 2013;21(suppl 1):S20-S26] - Alpha angle
- Formed by a line along the axis of the femoral neck and a line from the center of the femoral head to the point where the head diverges outside the circle
- >50 degrees is associated with FAI
- Head-neck offset and offset ratio
- Based on a lateral view, a line parallel to the long axis of the femoral neck is drawn along the anterior femoral neck and second line along the anterior aspect of the femoral head
- The distance between the two is the head neck offset
- <8mm likely represents cam-lesion
- Offset ratio is the distance between the two lines divided by the diameter of the femoral head
- <0.17 likely represents cam-lesion
What radiographic view best demonstrates the maximal CAM deformity?
[JAAOS 2013;21(suppl 1):S20-S26]
45° Dunn view
What radiographic view best demonstrates the anterior CAM deformity?
[JAAOS 2013;21(suppl 1):S20-S26]
Cross table lateral and frog leg lateral
What special tests should be performed during the physical exam for FAI?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2013; 21(suppl 1):S16-S19]
- Impingement test (FADIR)
* With the hip at 90° of hip flexion the hip is internally rotated and adducted - Posterior impingement test
* Hip extension combined with external rotation - Log roll test
- Resisted hip flexion test
- FABER
Associated injuries in cam impingement include?
[Orthop Clin N Am 44 (2013) 575–589]
- Labral detachment from the acetabular rim
- Cartilage delamination (full and partial-thickness)
* Deeper compared to peripheral cartilage delamination in pincer impingement
Associated injuries in pincer impingement include?
[Orthop Clin N Am 44 (2013) 575–589]
- Labral pathology
- Peripheral cartilage delamination
- Contracoup chondrolabral lesions in the posterior acetabulum
* Due to anterior levering of the femur causing posterior shear
What are the risk factors for femoral neck fracture after hip arthroscopy for FAI?
[J Hip Preserv Surg. 2017 Jan; 4(1): 9–17]
- Femoral osteochondroplasty
- Early WB
- Resection depth 10-33% the width of the femoral neck
- Increased age
What percent chance exists to have a recurrent dislocation if a patient has had 2 prior patella dislocations?
50%
What are the factors that contribute to patella stability?
[JAAOS 2011;19:8-16]
- Osseous anatomy
- Trochlear groove
- Most important stabilizer at flexion >30°
- Height and slope of the lateral trochlear facet provides the primary resistance
- Static stabilizers
- MPFL and medial patellotibial ligament
- Most important in full extension when patella is not engaged in trochlea (between 0-30)
- Function to guide the patella into the groove from 0-20° flexion
- Dynamic stabilizers
- VMO
- More variable contribution to patella instability
What are risk factors for patellar instability?
[JAAOS 2011;19:8-16]
- Unfavourable bone anatomy
- Trochlea dysplasia (shallow, flattened trochlea groove)
- Seen in <2% of the general population but in 85% of recurrent patellar instability
- Patella alta
- Increased TT-TG distance
- Increased Q angle
- Lower extremity rotational malalignment
- femoral anteversion +/- external tibial torsion
- Dynamic stabilizer imbalance
- femoral anteversion +/- external tibial torsion
- ITB
- Increased tension causes lateral patellar tracking
- VMO/VLO
- Imbalance in strength can lead to instability
- Incompetent static stabilizers
* Generalized ligamentous laxity
Where anatomically is the MPFL typically injured?
[JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
Femoral origin
What is the classification of trochlear dysplasia?
[JAAOS 2011;19:8-16]
Dejour classification
- Type A = shallow
- Radiographic findings = crossing sign
- Type B = flat
- Radiographic findings = crossing sign, supratrochlear spur
- Type C = lateral convexity/medial hypoplasia
- Radiographic findings = crossing sign, double contour sign
- Type D = cliff
- Radiographic findings = crossing sign, double contour sign, supratrochlear spur
Why is the patella more unstable (and thus more prone to dislocation) in knee extension rather than flexion?
[J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90:2751-62]
- Q-angle is greatest in knee extension
- Lowest quadriceps and patellar tendon tension
* Low posterior directed force - Patella disengages from the trochlear groove
Describe the anatomy of the MPFL?
MPFL
- Femoral attachment
- Center of attachment is between the medial epicondyle and the adductor tubercle
- Patella attachment
- 7.4mm anterior to a tangent to the posterior patellar cortical line and 5.4mm distal to the proximal edge of the articular surface of the patella
- Located at the junction of the proximal 1/3 and distal 2/3
- Encompasses 33% of the total length of the patella [JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
What is the radiographic landmark of the femoral insertion of the MPFL called and where is it located?
[Orthop Clin N Am 46 (2015) 147–157]
- Schottle point
- 1 mm anterior to the posterior cortex extension line
- 2.5 mm distal to the posterior origin of the medial femoral condyle
- Proximal to the level of the posterior point of the Blumensaat line
- Stephens normalized dimensions [JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
- If AP dimension of medial femoral condyle is 100%, MPFL attachment is:
- 40% from posterior
- 50% from distal
- 60% from anterior
What are the physical examination findings in patellar instability?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
- J sign
- Knee is actively brought from flexion to extension
- Positive = Patella demonstrates a sudden, exaggerated lateral deviation after it fully exits the trochlear groove in full extension
- Indicates either trochlear dysplasia or patella alta
- Moving patellar apprehension test
- Most sensitive and specific
- Part 1:
- Knee held in full extension and the patella is manually translated laterally with the thumb
- Knee is then flexed to 90o and then brought back to full extension while the lateral force on the patella is maintained
- Positive:
- Patient orally expresses apprehension and may activate his or her quadriceps in response to apprehension
- Part 2:
- Knee is started in full extension, brought to 90o of flexion, and then back to full extension while the index finger is used to translate the patella medially
- Positive:
- Patient experiences no apprehension and allows free flexion and extension of the knee
- Lateral patellar translation
* Normal = Lateral translation of the patella should be ¼ to ½ the width of the patella
What are radiographic features to assess for in patellar instability?
[Orthop Clin N Am 46 (2015) 147–157] [J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90:2751-62] [JAAOS 2011;19:8-16] )
- Patella alta
- Insall-Salvati ratio (normal = 0.8-1.2)
- Caton-Deschampe ratio (normal = 0.6-1.3)
- Blackburn-Peel ratio (normal = 0.5-1.0)
- Blumensaat’s line should extend to the inferior pole of the patella at 30° of knee flexion
2. Trochlear dysplasia - Signs on lateral radiograph include:
- Normally, floor of the trochlea should not pass anterior to a line extended along the anterior femoral cortex
- Crossing sign:
- A line represented by the deepest part of the trochlear groove crossing the anterior aspect of the condyles
- Supratrochlear spur/prominence
- Extension of the trochlear groove above the projection of the anterior cortex of the femur
- Measured as the distance between the anterior femoral cortex and most anterior point of the trochlear floor
- Abnormal = >4mm
- Double contour
- Signs on the skyline view
- Sulcus angle
- Measured from the highest point on the condyles to the lowest point in the intercondylar sulcus
- Normal = 138 ± 6°
- Abnormal = >145°
- Indicates trochlear dysplasia
3. Lateral patellar tilt/subluxation
- Indicates trochlear dysplasia
- Sulcus angle
- Assess on skyline/Merchant view
What radiograph is superior for evaluating trochlear anatomy?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
Laurin radiograph
- Knee flexed only 20°
- Imaging beam directed from inferior to superior
***45° sunrise view does not visualize the proximal trochlear groove (may miss supratrochlear spur)
What is the role of CT in assessing patellar instability?
[Orthop Clin N Am 46 (2015) 147–157] [JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
Used to assess the tibial tubercle-trochlear groove distance
- Measured by taking a line perpendicular to a line tangential to the posterior femoral condyles through the deepest part of the trochlear groove and through the apex of the tibial tubercle
- Distance between these 2 lines is defined as the TT-TG distance
What TT-TG distance is associated with patellar instability?
>20mm (average normal is 9mm)
- 10-15mm = normal
- MPFL reconstruction is usually sufficient
- 15-20mm = gray zone
- Consider bony reconstruction in addition to MPFL reconstuction
- >20mm = abnormal
- MPFL reconstruction unlikely to be sufficient
- Needs bony reconstruction in addition to MPFL
***NOTE: 20mm is a guideline and not a rule; MRI values may be less
What measurement may more accurately describe tibial tubercle lateralization than TT-TG?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
Tibial tubercle – posterior cruciate ligament distance
- Normal <24mm
- Both are tibial reference points
- Not affected by knee rotation like TT-TG
What MRI findings are consistent with patellar instability?
[J Bone Joint Surg Am.2008;90:2751-62][Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2016;24:44–49)]
- Bone bruising
* Edema on lateral aspect of lateral femoral condyle and inferomedial patella - Cartilage damage
* Osteochondral fracture of the medial patellar facet or lateral trochlear ridge - MPFL damage
- VMO injury
What is the treatment of choice for first-time patella dislocation?
[JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
Nonoperative treatment
- Bracing
- ROM
- Strengthening
- Gradual return to play
What is the standard surgical approach in patient with chronic lateral patellar instability with at least 2 documented patellar dislocations?
[JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
Anatomic MPFL reconstruction
- Miniopen technique
- Using a graft stronger than the native MPFL
- Semi-T or gracilis
- Compensates for the uncorrected predisposing patellar instability factors
What is the ideal indication for an MPFL reconstruction?
[JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
- Recurrent lateral patellar dislocation
- TT-TG distance <20 mm
- Positive apprehension test until 30° of knee flexion
- Caton-Deschamps index of <1.2
- Normal trochlea or Dejour type A dysplasia
What are the errors in femoral tunnel position for MPFL reconstruction and their implications?
[JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
- Too proximal
- Graft lax in extension and tight in flexion
- Clinically:
- Anterior knee pain
- Loss of flexion
- Graft stretch and failure
- Too distal
- Graft tight in extension and lax in flexion
- Clinically:
- Extension lag
Where is the MPFL graft typically passed between the patella and femur?
Between layer 2 (medial patellar retinaculum) and layer 3 (capsule)
Is the native MPFL isometric?
[JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
The MPFL is nonisometric over the complete ROM
- Isometric from 0-30o
- Tight in extension, Lax in flexion
How should the MPFL graft function after reconstruction?
[JAAOS 2014;22:175-182]
- The ROM after MPFL graft fixation should be complete
- The MPFL graft should be isometric from 0-30°
- The MPFL graft should tighten in extension and be lax in flexion
- There should be a good endpoint to lateral patellar translation from 0-30°
- The MPFL should only tighten on lateral patellar translation
- Should permit 1cm of lateral translation or the equivalent of two quadrants of lateral deviation with a firm end point
What are the most common complications following MPFL reconstruction?
[JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
- Recurrent apprehension
- Arthrofibrosis
- Pain
- Clinical failure
- Patellar fracture
What is the redislocation rate following MPFL reconstruction?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
<10%
What are the indications and contraindications for a tibial tubercle transfer in the setting of patellar instability?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
Indications:
- TT-TG >20mm (measured on CT)
- High TT-PCL distance (>24mm)
- Caton-Deschamp ratio >1.2
Contraindications [JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
- Open tibial apophysis
- Causes growth arrest and recurvatum
- Medial dislocations
- Patellofemoral OA of the proximal and medial facets
What is the postoperative goal TT-TG after tibial tubercle transfer for patellar instability?
- 10mm [JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
- 9-15mm [JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
What is the main complication following tibial tubercle transfer for patellar instability?
[JBJS 2016;98:417-27]
Symptomatic hardware
In the presence of trochlear dysplasia what is the recommended treatment for patellar instability?
[JAAOS 2011;19:8-16]
- First-line
- Procedures to address associated factors rather than trochleoplasty
- TT-TG and patella height normal = MPFL reconstruction
- TT-TG >20mm = tibial tubercle transfer or femoral derotation osteotomy
- Second-line
- Trochleoplasty
- Involves reshaping the trochlea by deepening the groove by removing subchondral bone and impacting the overlying catilage into the defect
- Indications:
- High-grade trochlear dysplasia (where other options won’t provide stability) and salvage situations
What type of trochlea according to the Dejour classification is most likely to benefit from a trochleoplasty?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
Type B and D
- Both have supratrochlear spurs – tend to displace the patella laterally
What are the contraindications for trochleoplasty?
[JAAOS 2018;26:429-439]
- Open physes
- Advanced patellofemoral arthritis
What are the indications for tibial tubercle osteotomy (distal realignment procedures)?
[Clin Sports Med 33 (2014) 517–530]
- Recurrent patella instability if
- Skeletally mature
- Proximal tibia and tibial tubercle physis closed
- TT-TG >15
- Caton-Deschamps >1.2
- Unload focal patella cartilage lesions
- Without cartilage resurfacing for lateral or distal lesions
- With cartilage resurfacing for central or medial lesions
- Isolated lateral patellofemoral compression, tilt or overload in patients who fail lateral release
What are contraindications for TTO?
[Clin Sports Med 33 (2014) 517–530] [AJSM 2014; 42(8): 2006)
- Skeletally immature
- Medial patellar subluxation/dislocation
- Diffuse patellofemoral arthrosis
- Smoking
What are the types of TTOs?
[Clin Sports Med 33 (2014) 517–530]
- Medialization (Elmslie-Trillat procedure)
- Reduces the TT-TG
- Decreases pressure on lateral facet
- Amount of medialization is limited by the amount of bony contact available
- Anterior transfer (Maquet)
- Goal is to reduce patellofemoral contact pressures
- Transfers the contact forces from distal to proximal patella
- Requires allograft or autograft bone block
- Not routinely done
- Anteriorization usually combined with medialization
- Can be indicated for unloading large distal patellar chondral lesions, bipolar kissing lesions or arthritis in setting of normal TT-TG
3. Distalization - Indications:
- Caton-Deschamps or Insall-Salvati >1.2 (usually >1.4)
- Rarely done in isolation
- Usually combined multiplanar osteotomy
- Caution with overdistalization which can limit knee flexion
- Anteromedialization (Fulkerson)
- The amount of anteriorization and medialization is determined by the obliquity of the osteotomy
- Increased obliquity [A-P] = increased anteriorization
- With a constant anteriorization of 15mm: [AJSM 2014; 42(8): 2006)
- 60° slope creates ~9mm of medialization
- 45° slope creates ~15mm of medialization
- Advantages:
- Preserves extensor mechanism
- Large surface for bone healing
- Ability to place multiple screws
- Multiplanar adjustments
- Early ROM
- Disadvantages
- Does not address incompetent MPFL
- Hardware irritation
- Potential NV injury
- Increased medial PF contact pressures
- Delayed union/nonunion
- Cannot perform in skeletally immature
What are the complications associated with TTO?
[Clin Sports Med 33 (2014) 517–530][AJSM 2014; 42(8): 2006)
- Hardware irritation (50% require removal)
- Nonunion/delayed union
- Compartment syndrome
- Anterior tibial artery injury
- Deep peroneal injury
- Infection
- DVT
- Medial patellar instability
- Fracture of tubercle
- Fracture of proximal tibia
- Skin necrosis
What is the etiology of ACL tears?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2013;21:41-50]
- Noncontact injuries (70%)
* Most commonly a deceleration event and change in direction with a planted foot (cutting maneuver) - Trauma (30%)
What are the risk factors for an ACL tear?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2013;21:41-50]
- Female sex
- Increased friction and shoe-playing surface interface (eg. cleats)
- Notch stenosis
- Increased posterior tibial slope
- Increased Q-angle
- Smaller ACL
- Increased quadriceps to hamstring strength
- Poor landing position
* Erect, hips adducted/internally rotated, knee relatively extended/valgus, tibia externally rotated
What factors make females 2-8x more likely than male athletes to sustain an ACL injury?
[JAAOS 2013;21:41-50]
- Increased Q angle
- Notch stenosis
- Smaller ACL
- Increased quadriceps to hamstring strength and recruitment ratio
- Poor landing position
- Others:
- Increased medial posterior tibial slope
- Hormonal factors
- Increased generalized ligamentous laxit
- Increased knee laxity
What are the indications for ACL reconstruction?
[AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014]
- Athletes who perform cutting and pivoting sports
- High demand occupations (eg. police or military)
- High risk occupations (eg. firefighter)
- Recurrent instability
What are indications for nonoperative management of ACL injuries?
[AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014]
- Low physical demand patients
- Older age
- Advanced osteoarthritis
- Patients unwilling or unable to comply with postoperative rehab
What radiographic features would suggest a possible ACL injury (4)?
- Effusion
- Segond fracture
- Tibial tubercle avulsion
- Lateral femoral notch sign/deep sulcus sign
What are the MRI findings to support the diagnosis of an ACL tear?
- Direct
- Fibre discontinuity
- Increased signal intensity
- Abnormal orientation
- ‘Empty notch sign’ (chronic)
2. Indirect - Bone bruises
- Anterior tibial translation
- PCL buckling (reduced PCL angle)
- Uncovering of the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus
What is the collagen composition of the ACL?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
Type I – 90%
Type III – 10%
What are the bundles of the ACL and what are their function?
[Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2010;18:27–32] [Clin Sports Med 36 (2017) 9–23]
Bundle named based on tibial insertion
- Anteromedial
- Main contributor to AP stability
- Taught in flexion, relaxed in extension
- Posterolateral
- Main contributor to rotational stability
- Taught in extension, relaxed in flexion
Describe the femoral insertion of the ACL?
Medial wall of the lateral femoral condyle
- Posterior to the resident’s ridge (lateral intercondylar ridge)
- Lateral bifurcate ridge separating the AM from the PL bundle
- AM bundle superior and PL bundle is inferior to bifurcate ridge
What are the arthroscopic landmarks to determine the centre of the ACL femoral footprint (single bundle technique)?
[JAAOS 2016;24:443-454]
- 8mm anterior to the posterior articular margin of the lateral femoral condyle
- 1.7mm proximal to the bifurcate ridge
How do you landmark the ACL femoral footprint using fluoroscopy?
[JAAOS 2016;24:443-454]
For single-bundle reconstruction:
- Center of the femoral footprint can be referenced on a grid using the Blumensaat line
- 28% of the distance from proximal to distal
- 34% posterior to the Blumensaat line
Describe the tibial insertion of the ACL?
[Clin Sports Med 36 (2017) 9–23]
Broad insertion anterior and between the medial and lateral tibial spines
- AM bundle located more anterior and medial
- PL bundle located more posterior and lateral
What are the arthroscopic landmarks to determine the centre of the ACL tibial footprint (single bundle technique)?
[JAAOS 2016;24:443-454]
- 9mm posterior to the posterior edge of the intermeniscal ligament
- 5mm anterior to the peak of the medial tibial spine
- Midway between the medial and lateral tibial spines in the coronal plane
***Note: not recommended to use the lateral meniscus as a reference as the anterior horn insertion is variable
- If used the centre of the footprint is posterior and medial to the anterior insertion
How do you landmark the ACL tibial footprint using fluoroscopy?
[JAAOS 2016;24:443-454]
- 43% of the distance anterior to posterior of the midsagittal tibial diameter
- 51% medial to lateral on the AP view
On a postoperative radiograph, what is the ideal ACL tibial tunnel position and femoral tunnel position?
[Skeletal Radiol (2013) 42:1489–1500]
- Lateral
- Anterior wall of the tibial tunnel should be posterior to a line extended along Blumensaat’s line with knee in extension
- No part of the femoral tunnel should intersect Blumensaat’s line
- AP
- Angle between the femoral anatomical axis and the femoral tunnel ideally is 39°
- ≤17° is associated with rotational instability
Describe the relationship of the ACL AM to the PL bundle in extension compared to flexion?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
- Extension
- Femoral insertions are vertical (AM above PL)
- Bundles are parallel
- PL bundle is tight and AM bundle is relaxed
- Flexion
- Femoral insertions are horizontal (AM posterior to PL)
- Bundles are crossed
- PL bundle is relaxed and AM bundle is tight
What is the surgical terminology used when describing the ACL femoral tunnel placement?
With knee in flexion as occurs during surgery:
- Shallow/deep (A-P)
- High/low (superior-inferior)
Is the native ACL isometric?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
No
- “Isometry in ACL does not exist as there is no one point on femur that maintains a fixed distance from a single point on the tibia during the range of motion of the knee.”
What is the rational for isometric ACL graft placement?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
- An isometric graft avoids changes in graft length and tension during knee flexion and extension which avoids graft failure by overstretching
- Downside is it results in a more vertical graft which is not as effective in controlling rotation
- Isometric point on the femoral side is high in the notch and posterior
What clock position is thought to be optimal for the ACL femoral tunnel to achieve graft isometry?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
11 o’clock (right) and 1 o’clock (left)
- Apex of the notch represented by 12 o’clock
***NOTE – changing the position to 10 o’clock (right) or 2 o’clock (left) improves the rotational stability
- Graft becomes less vertical
What is the blood supply of the ACL?
[Clin J Sport Med 2012;22:349–355]
- Primary – middle genicular artery
- Secondary – inferomedial and inferolateral genicular arteries
What is the innervation of the ACL?
[Clin Sports Med 36 (2017) 9–23]
Branches of the tibial nerve
What is the average length of the native ACL?
[World J Orthop 2015,18;6(2):252-262]
33mm
What is a cyclop lesion (in context of ACL)?
Focal nodule of fibrous tissue sitting in the intercondylar notch anterior to the reconstructed ACL
- Significance:
- Limits complete knee extension due to intercondylar notch impingement
With an ACL injury, what is the typical bone bruises identified on MRI and what is their significance?
[AAOS comprehensive review 2, 2014][Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2016;24:44–49]
- Anterolateral femoral condyle (sulcus terminalis) and posterolateral tibial plateau (“kissing lesion”)
- Compared to those without bone bruises:
- Protracted clinical recovery
- Greater effusions and pain scores
- Slower return of motion
What is the most common meniscus injured in the acute vs. chronic ACL deficient knee?
[J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2013;21:204-213]
- Acute ACL injury – lateral meniscus tear
- Chronic ACL injury – medial meniscus tear
What are graft options for ACL reconstruction?
- Hamstring autograft
- Bone-patellar-bone autograft
- Quadriceps tendon autograft
- Allograft
Which ACL graft has the greatest strength and stiffness?
Quadrupled-strand hamstring graft
What ACL graft size diameter (mm) has been shown to decrease failure rates?
[Arthroscopy 2014 Jul;30(7):882-90]
8mm
- “Quadrupled-strand hamstring autograft with a diameter equal to or larger than 8 mm decreases failure rates. Grafts larger than 8 mm were found to provide a protective effect in patients aged younger than 20 years, a group identified to be at increased risk of failure”
What is the concern with ACL grafts that are too large?
[JBJS 2017;99:438-45]
Impingement of the graft on the roof and PCL
When selecting an interference screw for ACL soft tissue grafts, how can you increase the fixation strength?
[JBJS 2017;99:438-45]
Increase screw length or diameter
What is the general recommendation for notchplasty during ACL reconstruction?
[JBJS 2017;99:438-45]
Notchplasty is not recommended during ACL reconstruction
- Smaller intercondylar notch dimensions are not associated with ACL graft failure