Sport Psychology

Question 1

Define personality

Answer 1

Psychological characteristics that make a person unique and account for regular patterns of behaviour

Question 2

Identify the personality theories

Answer 2

• Trait theory (nature)
• Social learning (nurture)
• Interactionist perspective

Question 3

Outline trait theory of personality

Answer 3

• Claims the origins of behaviour are innate and genetically predisposed. Traits are enduring and consistent in all situations, causing human behaviour to be predictable

• Comprised of two theories:
- Eysenck’s (1968) type theory
- Gidarno et al’s (1990) narrow band theory

Question 4

Outline Eysenck’s (1968) type theory

Answer 4

• Recognised four primary personality traits (introvert to extrovert and stable to neurotic)

• These primary traits are underpinned by 16 secondary traits that comprise Cattell’s (1965) 16 personality factor questionnaire

• Cattell argued that there are more than 2/3 dimes bison’s that define personality and that personality is dynamic and deviations would occur in tests dependent on mood, motivation and situational factors

Question 5

Compare introverted and extroverted personalities

Answer 5

• Extroverts affiliate well with others while introverts prefer isolation

• Extroverts are outgoing and seek excitement while introverts avoid excitement

• Introverts are good at concentrating for prolonged periods while extroverts may find prolonged concentration difficult

• Introverts have a higher sensitivity of the reticular activating system (RAS) causing rapid increases in arousal levels while extroverts have a RAS that reduces sensitivity to external stimuli so they become aroused more slowly

Question 6

Define arousal

Answer 6

A state of preparedness or excitement

Question 7

Compare stable and neurotic personalities

Answer 7

• Stable personalities display predictable emotions on appropriate situations while neurotics display extreme and unpredictable mood swings

• Stable personalities tend not to experience intense anxiety whereas neurotics experience high degrees of anxiety

• Stable personalities recover rapidly from anxiety while neurotics have slow recovery from anxiety

Question 8

Outline Gidarno et al’s (1990) narrow band theory

Answer 8

• Distinguishes between ‘type A’ and ‘type B’ personalities focusing on anxiety levels experienced by different personalities. It exposes signs of stress and raises awareness of their consequences enabling stress management to be implemented to improve performance

• It’s thought ‘type A’ personalities are more likely to succeed in sport due to higher competitiveness and are more likely to choose team sports but the evidence is tenuous

Question 9

Compare ‘type A’ and ‘type B’ personalities

Answer 9

• Type A tend to be prone to experiencing high stress levels while type B tend to be more relaxed and less prone to stress

• Type A are highly competitive, promoting anger and hostility while type B enjoy achievement but experience less stress when losing

• Type A like control and find delegation difficult while type B don’t seem to control others

Question 10

Identify issues with trait theory of personality

Answer 10

• Fails to recognise effects of the environment and individual change

• It’s extremely simplistic and isn’t accurate in predicting excellence or participation in physical activity

Question 11

Outline and evaluate social learning theory (SLT) of personality

Answer 11

• Proposes all behaviours are learnt from interaction and experience with the environment through operant learning

• Explains why behaviours significantly influenced by role models (eg. Tanni Grey-Thompson) through vicarious reinforcement and why twins separated at birth develop different personalities

• Key research was carried out by Bandura (1977), who supported SLT believing learning was stimulated by environmental (meditational) processes such as behaviour being imitated and acquired after observation and social and vicarious reinforcement.

• The chance of vicarious reinforcement can be increased by powerful or authoritative role models or role models of similar age/gender/ability to the learner

• Doesn’t account for genetic factors

Question 12

Outline and evaluate the Interactionist approach into personality

Answer 12

• Personality’s due to a combination of inherited traits and learned experience from the environment

• Key research came from Lewin (1935) who proposed a formula stating that behaviour is a function of personality and environment [B= f(PE)]

+ Can be used as a systematic approach for coaches to design practices that aid performers in coping with anxiety and aggression

+ Explains why behaviours complex and unpredictable

Question 13

What are the two models of personality structure

Answer 13

• Hollander (1971)
• Martens

Question 14

Outline Hollander’s (1971) personality structure

Answer 14

• Hollander defined personality as “the sum of an individuals characteristics that make him unique” and considered personality as layers forming concentric rings, each with a name and function becoming progressively more difficult to probe:

• The psychological core is the innermost layer and is a more or less permanent inner core of beliefs and values eg. a boxer’s belief that fair play underlies his attitude when competing

• Typical behaviour is the way an individual responds to certain situations eg. stops fighting after the bell in a boxing bout

• Role-related behaviour is when in different situations we may behave differently eg. striking after the bell when annoyed in a boxing bout

• The social environment is the outermost layer and refers to how the behaviour/expectations of others affect our role eg. players argue with the referee as other have done it and gotten away with it

Question 15

Outline Marten’s personality structure

Answer 15

• Three layers of personality, consisting of the psychological core, typical responses and role-related behaviour

• The psychological core at the bottom is categorised by internal and consistent elements and traits of an individual

• In the middle is the typical responses of an individual to situations eg. a win at all costs mindset that leads to instrumental aggression

• At the top is role-related behaviour characterised by external and dynamic factors that depend on elements outside of the core of the person, based on situational factors such as position

Question 16

Define and outline attitude

Answer 16

• An emotional response that influences behaviour and brings about an individuals typical actions towards an attitude object

• Attitudes can be positive (favouritism) or negative (prejudice) and are limited, typical responses based on a belief about an attitude object. They can be changed but tend to be stable and enduring and can last a lifetime

Question 17

Outline prejudice

Answer 17

• Antipathy felt based on faulty or inflexible generalisations directed towards a certain group or individual within a group (Allport, 1954)

• This can include stereotyping which relates to a person having a mental picture, associating certain behavioural traits with a particular type of individual (Lippman, 1922)

Question 18

How are attitudes formed

Answer 18

• Successful or unpleasant experiences (to form positive or negative attitudes) through operant and classical conditioning

• Personality types (extroverts more likely to have positive attitude toward sport)

• Socialisation and role models (SLT and social norms) through education, media, religion etc

• Cultural factors (prejudice and stereotyping)

Question 19

Identify the relevant model and components of attitude

Answer 19

• Wood’s triadic model of attitude consists of three components;
- The cognitive component: what you think about
an attitude object
- The affective component: what you feel about an attitude object
- The behavioural component: what you do about an attitude object

Question 20

Define the cognitive, affective and behavioural components of Wood’s triadic model of attitude and how they can be changed

Answer 20

• Cognitive component: what you think about an attitude object. The beliefs or knowledge a person has about the attitude object (Eg. running may help improve cardiovascular fitness)
- It can be changed by proving information

• Affective component: what you feel about an attitude object. The emotional aspect of an attitude, whether the attitude object gives you a good feeling. Enjoyment will produce a positive emotional feeling (Eg. I enjoy the physical sensation of running)
- It can be changed by providing positive experience/ reinforcement

• Behavioural component what you do about an attitude object, the response or behaviour toward an attitude object. If the cognitive and affective components are positive, then the response to the attitude object will be positive and (Eg. I believe running has fitness benefits and the activity is enjoyable so I run)
- It can be changed by altering the difficulty of tasks

Question 21

Evaluate Wood’s triadic model

Answer 21

• It’s not always possible to predict a performers behaviour so simply it doesn’t always reflect the correlation between cognitive and affective components. Therefore, apparent positive attitudes won’t be true determinants of actual sporting behaviour

Question 22

What two theories can explain how attitude can be changed

Answer 22

• Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957)
• Persuasive communication theory

Question 23

Outline cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 23

• Festinger (1957) suggests an individual has cognitions about their own attitudes, thoughts and beliefs and cognitive dissonance is contradiction or imbalance between attitude components. This causes a feeling of stress and desire to balance components.

• If a person experiences cognitive dissonance or conflict then they’re motivated to change their attitudes to return to a feeling of consonance (psychological harmony)

Question 24

Outline persuasive communication theory

Answer 24

• Involves using communication to persuade an individual to change their attitude, dependent on four factors:
1. The characteristics of the receiver: if they’re willing to change behaviour they’re more likely to do so, so strong pre-existing attitudes are harder to change
2. The characteristics of the persuader: if they’re of a higher status, they’re more likely to be persuasive
3. The quality of the message: it must be clear, accurate and concise meaning the receiver isn’t overloaded with information
4. The situation: a positive environment with the social support for attitude change will increase likelihood of a change in attitude

Question 25

Identify simple ways attitudes can be changed

Answer 25

• Reward success in performance
• Agree on targets and goals
• Use positive role models
• Ensure training is enjoyable

Question 26

Outline arousal

Answer 26

A state of psychological activity that can be divided into somatic and cognitive arousal

Question 27

Outline somatic arousal

Answer 27

• Physical arousal, e.g. faster heart rate before competition

• Characterised by
- increased heart rate and breathing rate
- sweating, headaches, dry mouth and nausea
- increased muscle tension, butterfly’s and
constant need to urinate

Question 28

Outline cognitive arousal

Answer 28

• Psychological arousal e.g. anxiety or worries before competition

• Characterised by:
- heightened awareness of environmental cues
- increased focus, concentration
- narrowing of attention

• Over-arousal can cause:
- anxiety and apprehension
- negative self-talk and inability to concentrate
- difficulty sleeping

Question 29

What theories explain the effects of arousal

Answer 29

• Hull’s drive theory
• Inverted-U hypothesis

Question 30

Outline and evaluate Hull’s drive theory

Answer 30

• State’s there’s a linear relationship/positive correlation between arousal and performance of the dominant response
• The dominant response is the learned behavioural response most likely to occur with increased arousal
• Behaviour is shown as equal to habit multiplied by drive (B= HD)

• Hull’s drive theory only considers the effects of somatic arousal, not cognitive arousal/anxiety

Question 31

Describe how arousal affects optimal levels of performance at differing stages of learning

Answer 31

• Cognitive and associative learners are affected negatively by high arousal as their dominant response is likely incorrect.
• High arousal inhibits performance of perceptual and fine motor skills e.g. spin bowling in cricket

• Autonomous learners are affected positively by high arousal as their dominant response is likely correct and benefits performers who like to be challenged
• Hugh arousal helps performance of dynamic skills e.g. sprinting and explosive skills e.g. shotput

Question 32

Outline and evaluate the Inverted-U hypothesis

Answer 32

• As arousal increases the quality of performance increases (and continues to increase) up to an optimum point, at which performance and capacity to learn are best.
• After the optimum point, if arousal continues to increase performance will deteriorate gradually, shown by a gradual downward curve

• Inverted-U hypothesis only considers the effects of somatic arousal, not cognitive arousal/anxiety

Question 33

Describe factors that affect what the optimum level of arousal is

Answer 33

• Task type, personality and skill level determine the optimum point for each individual:

• Complex or fine skills have lower optimum arousal levels, while simple or gross skills have higher optimum arousal levels

• Introverts and novices have lower optimum arousal levels while extroverts and autonomous learners have higher optimum arousal levels

Question 34

Describe the effects of under, optimal and over arousal according to the Inverted-U hypothesis

Answer 34

• Under-arousal decreases performance due to attentional broadening, the performer doesn’t focus on relevant cues and doesn’t filter out irrelevant information causing an information overload

• Optimal arousal causes the attentional fold to adjust to the ideal width which has a positive effect in selective attention and cue-utilisation (ability to focus/act on appropriate cues). This maximises capacity to make fast and accurate decisions

• Over-arousal decreases performance due to hyper vigilance and perceptual or attentional narrowing (the performer filters out relevant cues, causing panic) leading to poor decision making