Exercise Physiology and Applied Movement Analysis

Question 1

Outline the effect of energy balance on performance

Answer 1

• Energy balance is achieved when the energy we consume matches the energy we expend during exercise (energy intake = energy expenditure)

• If we over-consume food compared to the energy we expend (calorie surplus) we achieve positive energy balance
• If we under-consume food compared to the energy we expend (calorie deficit) we achieve negative energy balance

• If performers don’t meet energy demands during training periods it can result in:
-Muscle atrophy
-Decreased intensity and duration of performance
-Slow recovery rates
-Increased risk of injury, fatigue and illness

• So weight-loss plans should be scheduled into training plans away from heavy training/competition

Question 2

Outline the effect of optimum weight on performance

Answer 2

• Different sports require differing optimal weights and manipulation of diet can be used to achieve this

• This can be applied within sports, e.g. boxers trying to make a weight category (increasing/decreasing weight), a sumo wrestler trying to be as heavy as possible or a cyclist trying to be light to find an optimal power:weight ratio

Question 3

Define Energy

Answer 3

The ability to perform work, measured in Joules (4.18J= 1 calorie)

Question 4

Explain how calorie requirements are calculated

Answer 4

BMR + METs + Thermic effect = Total caloric req.

• BMR = Basal metabolic rate; the ratio of a performers working metabolic rate relative to their resting metabolic rate

• METs (metabolic equivalent tasks) calculate the energy expenditure of a physical activity, using oxygen per unit of body weight per minute to measure exercise intensity (ml/O2/kg/min)

• Thermic effect = Energy required to eat, digest and absorb food

Question 5

Identify the factors affect total caloric requirement of an individual

Answer 5

• Age
• Gender
• Size
• Environment
• Lifestyle
• Metabolic rate

Question 6

Define hydration

Answer 6

Where the body has the correct amount of water in cells, tissues and organs to function correctly

Question 7

Identify the roles of water in the body

Answer 7

• Regulates body temperature, lubricates joints and prevents dehydration

• 55% of the blood is plasma of which 80% is water, this blood transports nutrients providing energy

Question 8

How much fluid should be consumed during exercise

Answer 8

For every 1kg of body mass lost during exercise, 800ml-1litre of fluid should be consumed; an athlete must replace all fluids lost during performance

Question 9

Identify the symptoms of dehydration

Answer 9

• Decreased heart regulation, cognitive function and skill level

• Increased heart rate, blood viscosity and therefore fatigue

Question 10

Explain the consequences of a loss of electrolytes (salt and minerals) through sweat

Answer 10

• Fatigue and cramping
• Losing 2% of bodyweight in sweat can cause up to a 30% decrease in performance

Question 11

Define osmolality (specifically for sports drinks)

Answer 11

A measure of the number of particles in a solution. In a sports drink, these particles will be carbohydrates, electrolytes and water

Question 12

Outline different types of sports drinks

Answer 12

• Hypotonic solutions (4% glucose):
-Glucose osmolality is lower than in the blood
stream, so replaces fluids lost by sweating,
providing small amounts of glucose for energy.
-Used by athletes for hydration without energy
boosts such as jockeys and gymnasts

• Isotonic solutions (5-8% glucose):
-Glucose osmolality is the same as in the
bloodstream, so it’s absorbed at the same rate
as water and is quick to rehydrate and provide
energy.
-Used by middle to long distance athletes and
games players

• Hypertonic solutions (8%+ glucose):
-Glucose osmolality is higher than the
bloodstream so they’re absorbed slower than
water, consumed pre or post exercise
-Predominately consumed post exercise to
maximise glycogen replenishment (fluid
replenishment is secondary)

Question 13

Define contemporary supplements and identify examples used by athletes

Answer 13

• Products used to enhance sporting performance. When considering a balanced diet, we must be aware of dietary supplements (legal or illegal) used by athletes that provide additional nutrients to improve health and well-being or enhance sporting performance, for example:

• Creatine
• Whey Protein
• Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs)
• Caffeine
• Herbal remedies
• Cherry juice
• Nitrates
• Sodium bicarbonate

Question 14

Outline and evaluate creatine as a contemporary supplement

Answer 14

• A compound the body makes naturally that supplies energy for muscle contraction, it can also be used as a supplement to increase performance by increasing phosphocreatine stored in the muscles

+ PC’s used to fuel the ATP-PC system which
provides energy, increasing creatine in muscles
allows this energy system to last longer and
perform at a higher intensity for longer
+ Helps improve recovery times

-Muscle cramps, diarrhoea, water retention,
bloating, vomiting as it makes muscles retain
more water
-Hinders aerobic performance
-Mixed evidence to show the benefits

Question 15

Outline and evaluate Whey protein and BCAAs as contemporary supplements

Answer 15

• Powders containing a mixture of protein

+ Increase protein in diet as athletes need more
protein than untrained people for muscle
hypertrophy and repair following hard training

-Stomach pains (high dosage), bloating, diarrhoea
-Argued the body doesn’t need more protein and
it’s not stored, and so is unnecessary

Question 16

Outline and evaluate caffeine as a contemporary supplement

Answer 16

• Naturally occurring stimulant

+ Increases mental alertness and reduces fatigue
and an athletes perceived effort
+ Improves metabolisation of fatty acids in the
body, using fats as an energy source and
allowing carbohydrates to be used later, sparing
muscle glycogen stores (more energy for longer)
+ 3mg of caffeine per kg of bodyweight or more
showed biggest increase in performance

-Dehydration, insomnia, muscle/stomach cramps,
vomiting, irregular heartbeat, diarrhoea
-Loss of fine motor control
-Against the rules in high quantities

Question 17

Outline herbal remedies as contemporary supplements, providing examples

Answer 17

• Derived from plant extracts and are lady of the practice of homeopathy, coming in tablets, oils, creams and liquids, for example:

• Ginseng boosts energy and Vo2 max and was used by Chinese endurance athletes in the 1990s

• Glucosamine reduces joint inflammation and stiffness

• Arnica reduces inflammation, bruising and pain

• Camomile reduces stress and promotes sleep and tissue repair

Question 18

Outline cherry juice as a contemporary supplement

Answer 18

High levels of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory properties which can decrease pain when recovering from injury and speed up recovery following exercise which can be beneficial to both strength and endurance performers

Question 19

Outline nitrates as a contemporary supplement

Answer 19

• Found in beetroot juice and other vegetables

• Relatively new supplement, nitrate refers to nitrate oxide and helps blood flow, increasing the duration and intensity of the sport being sustained

Question 20

Outline sodium bicarbonate as a contemporary supplement

Answer 20

• Antacid taken before sport

• Increases buffering capacity of the blood so it can neutralise negative effects of lactic acid/hydrogen ions produced in muscles during high intensity activity (delays fatigue)

Question 21

Identify strategies of optimal food intake for a strength athlete (including pre- and post-physical activity)

Answer 21

• General diet includes 5-6 meals a day including:
• 30% (1.8g/kg bodyweight) lean protein for
muscle growth and repair
• Complex carbohydrates to release energy
slowly, control blood glucose levels and
reduce fat storage
• Limited fat intake for energy and hormone
production

• Pre-physical activity: Small meal with equal
quantities of high GI carbs and protein 20-60
minutes before

• Post-physical activity: High GI carbs and protein
to be digested as soon as possible after exercise
(within 2 hours) to replace glycogen stores and
promote protein synthesis for muscle/strength
gain

Question 22

Identify strategies of optimal food intake for a endurance athlete pre-, during and post-physical activity

Answer 22

• Pre-physical activity:
• Slow digesting carbohydrate meal 3 hours
before (1.4g/kg bodyweight) or low GI
carbohydrates to maximise glycogen stores
• Simple carbs and high GI foods half hour
before to top up glycogen stores and maintain
blood glucose levels

• During physical activity (longer than 1 hour):
small amounts (30/60g) of fast digesting
carbohydrates to maintain blood glucose and
saturate muscle glycogen stores

• Post-physical activity: 1-1.5g per kg of
bodyweight of carbohydrates per hour within
30min of the event, every 2hours for the next 6
hours. Moderate to fast digesting carbohydrates
promote faster recovery

Question 23

Outline the window of opportunity as a strategy for optimal food intake

Answer 23

• After exercise, our muscles are primed to accept nutrition that stimulates muscle repair, growth and strength

• Within the first 30 minutes an athlete should aim to consume high GI carbohydrates to initiate replenishment of glycogen stores and maintain electrolyte balance
• While protein synthesis persists for at least 48 hours after exercise, it’s most important to consume lost exercise nutrition immediately (within 2 hours)

• Failing to provide lost-exercise nutrition fast enough decreases muscle glycogen storage and protein synthesis, even if it’s only by a few hours

Question 24

Outline and evaluate glycogen loading as a strategy for optimal food intake

Answer 24

• Athletes alter their carbohydrate intake in the week before an event to maximise glycogen stores in the muscles and liver, split into three phases:
• Depletion phase (first 3-4 days): Low carb diet
and continuation of exercise
• Repletion phase: Taper training and eat a high
carb diet
• Super-compensation phase (days 5-7): Due to
biological stress, reduction in carb stores due to
training when replenishing, the body’s forced to
store more glycogen

+ Increased glycogen stores
+ Increased endurance capacity: delays fatigue
and increases time to exhaustion by up to 30%

-Hypoglycaemia and poor recovery rates in the
depletion phase
-Lethargy and irritability, affects mental
preparation
- Increased injury risk and gastrointestinal
problems

Question 25

Identify reasons for fitness testing

Answer 25

• Provide objective measures about an individuals current state of fitness or health

• Highlight strengths and weaknesses

• Evaluate training programme efficacy

• Talent identification

• Providing motivation

• Adds variety to training

Question 26

Outline factors that can influence the results of fitness tests

Answer 26

• Reliability and validity of the test

• Environmental factors, e.g. time of day, weather and surface

• Personal factors e.g. prior experience with the test, sleep and diet

• Specificity of the test; sport specific tests should be appropriate for age, sex and fitness and test variables relevant to the sport e.g. flume pool for swimmers and cycle ergometers for cyclists

Question 27

Outline and evaluate lab tests

Answer 27

• Conducted in the confines of the laboratory and requires lab testing equipment such as a gas analyser.

+ High control over conditions such as temperature, diet, rest, warmup and protocols
+ Highly valid and reliable

-More expensive and time consuming and js done on a one-to-one basis
-Artificial environment that differs from specific sporting environments, which can impact results
-Frequent testing and travel to a laboratory

Question 28

Outline and evaluate field tests

Answer 28

• Conducted in natural (sport specific) environments

+ Natural environment that’s sport specific
+ Test large groups accurately and economically
+ Cheap and accessible

-Not as reliable as lab tests as variables, such as the weather, can’t be controlled
-More open to human error e.g. inaccurate counting of HR

Question 29

Define Validity in the context of fitness tests

Answer 29

A test that measures exactly what it intends to measure

Question 30

Define Reliability in the context of fitness tests

Answer 30

The ability to carry out the same test methods and expect the same results

Question 31

Identify ways of standardising fitness test protocol

Answer 31

• Protocol is the way in which a test’s conducted and must attempt to produce objective, measurable results and eliminate inaccuracies caused by, for example, human error and opinion.
This can be done by:

• Efficient and accurate recording equipment and the use of correct techniques and equipment

• Use of protocol for scoring

• Elimination of crowd effects

• Controlled warm up

• Same conditions for repeated teats

Question 32

Identify fitness tests that test for sub-maximal aerobic fitness

Answer 32

• Functional thresholds
• Maximum steady state

Question 33

Identify fitness tests that test for maximal aerobic fitness

Answer 33

• 12 minute Cooper run
• Multi-Stage Fitness Test
• Step tests
• Yo-to tests
• Gas Analysis

Question 34

Identify fitness tests that test for exercise economy

Answer 34

• Gas Analysis

Question 35

Identify fitness tests that test for anaerobic capacity

Answer 35

• Wingate Test
• Maximum Accumulated Oxygen Deficit
• Repeated Anaerobic Sprint Test
• Cunningham and Faulkner

Question 36

Identify fitness tests that test for anaerobic power

Answer 36

• Jump tests
• Agility tests
• Margaria-Kalaman

Question 37

Identify fitness tests that test for maximum speed

Answer 37

• Sprint tests less than 100m

Question 38

Outline the Functional Threshold Test

Answer 38

• Find the highest average lower you can sustain for 1 hour (Watts) to determine training zones
• Conduct a 3 minute test to gauge the target wattage (70-80%) and pair a HR monitor to the Wattbike.
• Using a Wattbike, maintain that same pace for 20 minutes and record the average power and HR at the end

+ Use of training zones

Question 39

Outline the Gas Analysis Test

Answer 39

• Lab test where velocity or resistance on a treadmill/bike/rowing ergometer is increased at regular intervals
• Start at a ‘comfortable but not too comfortable’ speed and increase the speed or incline every minute
• Oxygen uptake is calculated from measures of ventilation and oxygen and carbon dioxide in expired air. Maximal level is determined at/near the test completion by the plateauing of oxygen uptake

+ Lab test
-Initial speed is subjective

Question 40

Outline the Maximum Steady State Test

Answer 40

• Lab test where velocity or resistance on a treadmill/bike/rowing ergometer is increased at regular intervals
• Blood samples are taken at every increment to measure lactate levels (mmol/L)
• Usually tests for Vo2 max, HR data, Co2 levels and RPE

+ Lab test

Question 41

Multi-Stage Fitness Test

Answer 41

• Performer runs 20 metres back and forth on a marked path in time with a bleep on a pre-recording until exhaustion.
• One foot must be placed on/beyond the 20m marker at the end of each shuttle, failure to get there leads to a warnings. Participants may have 2 warnings before they’re finished and the test ends once they miss two bleeps

Question 42

Outline the 12 Minute Cooper Run Test

Answer 42

Run the greatest distance possible in 12 minutes, best competed on a 400m track

Question 43

Outline the Harvard Step Test

Answer 43

• Step onto a block with the right foot up and bring the left foot beside it. Continue in an ‘up, up, down, down’ pattern for three minutes

• Determines the aerobic capacity and estimates Vo2 max

+ Easy to administer
-Only estimates Vo2 max

Question 44

Outline the Yo-Yo Test

Answer 44

• Three cones are set out and the athlete starts running from the middle cone for 20 metres and then turns and returns to the starting point on a bleep.

• There’s an active recovery period of 10 seconds between each shuttle where the participant must walk/jog to the third cone and back (5 metres)

Question 45

Outline the Sit and Reach Test

Answer 45

• Participant sits on the floor and measures how far they can reach past their feet; measures flexibility

+ Easy to administer
-Only measures hamstring flexibility

Question 46

Outline the Wingate test

Answer 46

• Athlete pedals as fast as possible on a cycle ergometer with no resistance for 30 seconds.
• Revolutions are recorded at 5 second intervals to work out power output

• Determines anaerobic power and capacity

Question 47

Outline the Maximal Accumulated Oxygen Deficit Test

Answer 47

• Vo2 max is found and the athlete runs/cycles to exhaustion at a constant speed for 2-3 minutes

• Determines how efficiently your body can resynthesise used ATP molecules using phosphocreatine by finding the difference between oxygen consumption and expected oxygen consumption at 100% of Vo2 max

Question 48

Outline the Repeated Anaerobic Sprint Test

Answer 48

• Athlete performs six 35m sprints with 10 second recovery; each sprint is timed to work out power output, fatigue index and anaerobic capacity

Question 49

Outline the Cunningham and Faulkner test

Answer 49

• After a warmup, the treadmill is set to 8mph at 20% incline and the athlete should run to exhaustion

• The score is the time completed before exhaustion

Question 50

Outline the Margaria-Kalaman Test

Answer 50

• Start 6 metres in front of the first step of a staircase with at least 9 steps.

• The athlete will then sprint and jump when they reach the line, taking three steps at a time (3,6,9)

• The time is taken from step 3 to step 9, starting when the foot is first in contact with step 3 and stops when the foot contacts step 9

Question 51

Outline Sprint Tests <100m

Answer 51

• Most common test is the 30m sprint which is most accurate when using timing gates

• Modified based on specific physiological requirements for an activity (e.g. modified between netball and football) and is usually most sport specific when below 100m

Question 52

Outline Strength tests

Answer 52

• Most commonly 1/3 Rep Max using compound/ multi-joint exercises (e.g. squat/ bench press/ deadlift)

• Other tests include isokinetic strength tests and hand grip dynamometer tests

Question 53

Outline the Illinois Agility Test

Answer 53

• Cones mark the course and the subject starts face down with their head on the start line and hands by their shoulders

• On the whistle, the subject runs the 10m long, 5m wide course (draw layout)

Question 54

Outline the Standing Broad Jump Test

Answer 54

• Stand with 2 feet behind a marked line, swing arms to generate momentum and jump as far as possible. The athlete must make sure they fall forwards as if they fall back, that distance is recorded

• Determines horizontal anaerobic power

Question 55

Outline the Sargent Jump

Answer 55

• Position next to a wall with both feet on the ground and chalk your fingers, reaching the highest point you can

• From a static position, jump and reach the highest point possible and measure the distance between the two points

Question 56

Define and identify the physiological determinants of sporting performance

Answer 56

• Sporting Performance focussed on movement/running; running velocity’s influenced by a range of physiological, psychological and tactical factors

• Sub-maximal aerobic fitness (aerobic capacity)
• Maximal aerobic fitness (aerobic power)
• Anaerobic capacity
• Anaerobic power
• Maximum speed
• Exercise economy
• Body Composition

Question 57

Identify the physiological determinants relevant for the aerobic system (an endurance performer)

Answer 57

• Sub-maximal aerobic fitness (aerobic capacity)
• Maximal aerobic fitness (aerobic power)
• Exercise economy

Question 58

Identify the physiological determinants relevant for the anaerobic system (anaerobic performer)

Answer 58

• Anaerobic capacity
• Anaeobic power
• Maximum speed
• (Exercise economy)

Question 59

Identify the physiological determinants relevant for the neuromuscular system system

Answer 59

• Anaerobic power
• Maximum speed
• Exercise economy

Question 60

Define Sub-Maximal Aerobic Fitness (aerobic capacity)

Answer 60

The ability to maintain a high percentage of Vo2 max for a prolonged period of time

Question 61

Define Maximal Aerobic Fitness (aerobic power)

Answer 61

The maximum amount of oxygen that can be utilised in one minute. This is the upper limit of the aerobic system or the persons Vo2 max.

Question 62

Define Anaerobic Capacity

Answer 62

The amount of energy obtained from anaerobic sources in a single bout of exercise; the greatest amount of energy that can be released from the anaerobic system

Question 63

Define Anerobic Power

Answer 63

The rate at which energy’s released. This is the fasted rate at which ATP can be produced anaerobically during an activity

Question 64

Define Maximum Speed

Answer 64

Time taken to move a body or body part through a movement over a pre-determined distance or speed

Question 65

Define Exercise Economy

Answer 65

The energy required to maintain a constant velocity of movement. This is the ability to transfer energy into movement

Question 66

Define Body Composition

Answer 66

The proportion of muscle mass compared to fat mass

Question 67

Define Fitness

Answer 67

• The ability to meet the demands of the environment

• Consisting of physical components which are anatomically and physically based and skill components which are neuromuscular and skill-based and include the capacity to repeat a particular exercise

Question 68

Identify the components of fitness

Answer 68

• Localised Muscular Endurance
• Aerobic Capacity
• Strength
• Maximum Speed
• Power
• Agility
• Balance
• Co-ordination
• Flexibility
• Reaction Time

Question 69

Define localised muscular endurance, factors that influence it and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 69

• The ability of a muscle (group) to sustain repeated contractions against resistance.
• Localised muscular endurance relies on both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, stressing slow twitch and fast twitch (IIa) fibres which both have some fatigue resistance

• Tests: Wingate, RAST, MAOD, HST, 12min CRT

Question 70

Define aerobic capacity, factors that impact it and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 70

• The ability to utilise oxygen, incorporating maximal (Vo2 max) and submaximal aerobic fitness
• Percentage of slow twitch fibres, mitochondria and myoglobin concentrations and diet impact aerobic capacity

• Tests: Yo-yo, MSFT, HST, 12min CRT

Question 71

Outline strength and how it can be developed

Answer 71

• The maximum force exerted by a muscle or group of muscles during a contraction. There are three types of strength.

• Strength incorporates strength and maximal strength.
• Strength refers to the force developed in a
muscle/group of muscles during contraction
• Maximal strength refers to the maximal force
that can be developed in a muscle or group of
muscles during a single maximum contraction or
1RM

• Strength can be developed by weight and resistance training that promotes muscular hypertrophy with growth of type IIx fibres

Question 72

Outline the three types of strength

Answer 72

• Static strength is exerted without change in muscle length e.g. pushing hard during a stationary rugby scrum (isometric contraction)

• Dynamic/explosive strength is exerted during movement or exercise where muscle length changes e.g. Olympic weightlifter (most common type in sport)

• Elastic/plyometric strength is the ability to apply as large a force as possible using an eccentric followed by concentric contraction e.g. a high jump take off

Question 73

Define maximum speed, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 73

• Time taken to move a body(part or whole) through a movement over a pre-determined distance or speed
• S=D/T
• Improved through a combination of interval, Plyometrics and weight training to increase hypertrophy of type IIx fibres to increase potential for motor recruitment

• Tests: RAST/ Sprint tests (30m sprint)

Question 74

Define power, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 74

• The rate at which force is produced, a combination of strength and speed (watts)
• Developed through weight training and Plyometrics to increase hypertrophy and recruitment of type IIx fibres, most important component in e.g. power lifting/shotput

• Tests: Verticle jump, standing broad jump, Margarita-Kalaman, Wingate

Question 75

Define agility, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 75

• Changing position quickly and witty control without losing balance in response to a stimulus, linked to balance, co-ordination and speed.
• Developed through SAQ (speed, agility, quickness) training that improves proprioception and dynamic balance

• Tests: Illinois agility test

Question 76

Define balance, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 76

• The ability to maintain your centre of mass over your base of support, balance can be static (holding a position steady) or dynamic (ability to maintain balance on the changing conditions of body movement, shape and orientation)
• Developed through unilateral movements that challenge centre of mass on unstable surfaces to promote increased proprioception recruitment

• Measured by the Standard Stork Test

Question 77

Define co-ordination, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 77

• The ability of the body to link movements together, either with other movements or in relation to an external object. Combines with agility to improve physical literacy, increasing skill level
• Developed through intricate skill development practices

• Tests: Wall-Toss Test

Question 78

Define flexibility, how it can be trained and identify appropriate fitness tests

Answer 78

• The range of movement available at a joint, incorporating muscle tissue, ligaments and tendons around the skeletal joint
• Developed through the use of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) and static stretching incorporating the stress-overload principle by forcing the contractile tissues to operate at full strength

• Tests: sit and reach test

Question 79

Identify the principles of training

Answer 79

• Individual needs
• Specificity
• Progressive Overload
• Overtraining
• Reversibility

Question 80

Outline individual needs as a principle of training identifying factors that can affect it

Answer 80

• Each training programme must meet the specific personal fitness of the athlete

• Factors affecting individual needs include age, gender, weight, height, previous injuries, strengths and weaknesses, current level of fitness and performance

Question 81

Outline specificity as a principle of training identifying factors that can affect it

Answer 81

• The relevance of the choice of exercise to the athletes activity being improved. Focuses on the most appropriate way to develop the required components of fitness for the sport/position and where possible match the activity

• Factors affecting specificity include the contribution of energy systems, important components of fitness, muscle fibre types, skills and movements required in the sport/position

Question 82

Outline the difference between individual needs and specificity as principles of training

Answer 82

Individual needs focuses on the person/individual while specificity focuses on the sport/activity/position

Question 83

Outline progressive overload as a principle of training

Answer 83

• The need to increase training demands on the body, in order to encourage it to adapt further

• ‘More than normal’ gradually working with more intensity throughly the training programme to adapt to incremental training demands, improving fitness levels safely and reducing injury risk

• This can be achieved through the FITT principles, that can be manipulated to meet both specificity and progressive overload
• Frequency: ‘How often’ a performer trains

• Intensity: ‘How hard’ can be manipulated by
changing the length of the session, increasing
resistance, modifying work:relief ratios. Should
be specific to the activity (training zones)

• Time: ‘How long’ training duration- specific to
the aims of the sport

• Type: ‘The method’ and type of training: what
exercise should be specific to the aims of the
sport (matching) but will vary depending on the
periodised year

Question 84

Outline overtraining as a principle of training

Answer 84

• Occurs when intensity of volume of training are increased to extreme levels and there’s a lack of recovery within or between training sessions

• Doesn’t allow enough time for the repair of micro tears or the replenishment of energy stores, which could ultimately lead to fatigue, causing illness and/or injury

Question 85

Outline reversibility as a principle of training

Answer 85

• When training loads are reduced or removed completely, the state of fitness for performance returns to normal training state

• ‘Use it or lose it’. Adaptations gained through regular and progressive training will be lost if training at appropriate levels are not maintained. This generally occurs if athletes are ill/ injured for any period.
• For this reason, health and fitness experts are not in favour of ‘total rest’ and some form of ‘optimal exercise’ should be done in the recovery phase

Question 86

Outline how can we measure working intensity

Answer 86

• Intensity can be measured through scientific, lab based testing (e.g. blood lactate/gas analysis) or field based methods, such as:
• Target heart rate
• Rating of perceived exertion (RPE)
• Work:Relief ratios
• Calculating 1RM

Question 87

Outline the use of target heart rate as a way of measuring and calculating working intensity

Answer 87

• Target HR can be found by finding maximum HR (220-age) and multiplying it by the training percentage (aerobic zone= 60-80% of max HR/ anaerobic zone = 80-90% of max HR)
• 220 - age = max HR
• Max HR x training percentage = Target HR zone

• Karvonen’s theory (more accurate)
• Max HR - Resting HR = HR Reserve
• (HR reserve x training %) + Resting HR = Target
HR zone

• Percentage of functional threshold is the HR sustained for a one hour race effort to establish training zones. Functional threshold can be determined by a 30min full effort test with average heart rate of the last 20minutes used to determine intensity

Question 88

Outline the use of Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) as a way of measuring and calculating working intensity

Answer 88

• The Borg scale is a universal method of measuring physical activity intensity level of a scale of 6-20. It’s a subjective perspective on how hard you feel your body’s working based on physical sensations during exercise such as increased HR, breathing rate, sweating and muscle fatigue

Question 89

Outline the use of Work : Relief ratios as a way of measuring and calculating working intensity

Answer 89

• Used as a method to calculate exercise intensity by controlling duration of activity compared to the rest during interval training. They allow for the recovery of energy systems while resting (e.g. a work:relief ratio of 2:1 means the effort is twice as long as the rest

Question 90

Outline how altering Work : Relief ratios targets different systems

Answer 90

ATP/PC system (e.g. 1:3)
• To improve speed; work ratio may be less than
10 seconds while the relief ratio’s normally
longer allowing time for ATP and PC stores to
fully recover (2-3 minutes)

Glycolytic System
• To improve anaerobic endurance (increased
resistance to lactate accumulation) the work
ratio’s less than 10 seconds but with a shorter
relief period (e.g. 1:2 so only (e.g.) 50% of ATP/
PC restoration) or a longer work period,
increasing lactate accumulation, overloading the
lactic acid system

Aerobic Glycolytic
• To improve Vo2 max using submaximal
exercise. The work:relief ratio is normally longer
in duration and the intensity is just below
anaerobic threshold. The relief ratio’s typically
shorter (1:1) which helps reduce OBLA and
delay muscle fatigue and therefore prolong the
aerobic systems adaptations

Question 91

Outline the use of calculating percentage of 1RM as a way of measuring and calculating working intensity

Answer 91

• Used as a method to calculate exercise intensity by controlling training load. Different resistance goals are based on different percentages of 1 rep max

• Muscular endurance (60%)
• Muscular hypertrophy (70-85%)
• Strength (85+%)

Question 92

Identify contemporary technologies that are used to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 92

• Fitness trackers
• GPS
• Fitness machines
• Power meters
• Laser sensor equipment
• Wind tunnels
• Technology and drag
• Force plates
• Video analysis/software
• Bat sensors
• Isokinetic strength training machines

Question 93

Outline fitness trackers as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 93

• Heart rate monitors and pedometers are still used, but the evolution of fitness trackers and smart wrist bands have combined both and added extra data, such as distance, calories used, steps and monitor sleep

• Heart rate monitors allow performers to make
sure they’re in a target HR zone, they’re less
accurate in sudden short efforts and with high
intensity anaerobic activity.
• They’re an ageing technology and most sports
watches have GPS technology and associated
mobile apps that calculate trading intensity
based on age, weight, height, gender and can
accurately track calorie burn and distance run
(including splits and store data and compare it
on performance graphs)

• Pedometers detect the impact between the foot
and ground that causes the body to accelerate/
decelerate, it’s an internal device detecting
position change and count the number of
footfalls during activity, contemporary
pedometers can track footballs, distance run
and energy output using GPS technology.
They’re used to assess stride length/cadence
and total energy output

Question 94

Outline GPS’ as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 94

• Commonly used in teamsports, GPS devices can monitor distance moved, speed, acceleration and HR in real time. They’re becoming more affordable now but are almost replicated by modern HR monitors

• Devices can be worn during games and data is received remotely. This data can be used to assess and manage workloads to develop areas of weakness, coaches can understand players psychological limitations and they can be used for tactical changes

Question 95

Outline fitness machines as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 95

• Can monitor heart rate and give information on aerobic performance as most commercial gym equipment is computerised

• E.g. cycle ergometer, treadmill, stepper, cross trainer

Question 96

Outline power metres as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 96

• Measures training intensity by using a strain gauge for rowers and cyclists. Knowing power output is a quantitative, replicable way of assessing how hard a performer is working and when it’s time to rest between bouts of exercise

• Power data can be used by coaches to accurately determine the performance requirements of an event. They measure training intensity very accurately but are very expensive

Question 97

Outline laser sensor equipment as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 97

Assesses speed of a performers during sports such as the long or triple jump, ski racing or Formula One

Question 98

Outline wind tunnels as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 98

• Used to assess aerodynamics to improve the flow of fluid and reduce drag/fluid friction of objects such as bikes, cycle helmets and a cyclists overall profile

• Air is blasted last the stationary object in a tunnel and smoke is used to illustrate the layers of flow of air. The task is to avoid vortex generation in the air flow because a laminar (smooth) flow generates less drag

Question 99

Outline technology and drag as contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 99

• Computer programmes show how adjustments to shape can be made before construction, reducing expense and making the shape-making process more systematic
• This can apply to cycling, rowing, kayaking, bobsleigh, luge, skeleton, speed skating including the helmet costume and body angle

• Further application of the technology can be used to increase drag to improve propulsion in water-based activity through improved patterns of pulling in swimming and shape of blades in rowing and canoeing

Question 100

Outline force plates as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 100

• Inserted into the ground at take off area for the long/high jump or in the track space immediately after the sprint start to produce force patterns made by feet striking the plate

• This information can be combined with video footage of the same footfall to help a coach decide if changes in posture are required as the coach can tell the precise way in which the foot is active

Question 101

Outline video analysis as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 101

Software such as Quintic or Dartfish have drawing tools and playback options that can be used to assess the need for technical improvement

Question 102

Outline bat sensors as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 102

• Placed at the top of a cricket bat to measure; back lift, follow through angle, bat speed at impact, 3D swing and plane path

• Used to calculate shot timing and efficiency and correlate data with Hawkeye to see the shots efficacy and how it can be improved

• E.g. Intel-powered Speculur/ Stancebeam

Question 103

Outline isokinetic strength training machines as a contemporary technology to monitor fitness and performance

Answer 103

• Expensive, computerised, workload-controlled, strength assessment laboratory machines that provide accurate assessments of the rate of force development, force of concentration at different angles of hinge joins such as the knee or elbow

• Ideal for maximal strength and muscular endurance testing

• E.g. The Lido isokinetic machine is used to compare strength ratio between antagonistic muscle pairs e.g. quadriceps and hamstring groups’ optimal strength ratio should be 2:1 for optimal performance, otherwise muscle pulls and tears could occur, particularly in the weaker hamstring group

Question 104

Identify contemporary technologies used during fitness testing

Answer 104

• Isokinetic strength training machines
• Laser Sensor equipment
• Force Plates
• Fitness machines

Question 105

Identify contemporary technologies used to track fitness and performance

Answer 105

• Fitness trackers (including HR monitors,
pedometers and GPS)
• Power metres
• Bat sensors

Question 106

Identify contemporary technologies used to analyse and develop performance

Answer 106

• Wind tunnels
• Technology and drag
• Video analysis software

Question 107

Outline periodisation

Answer 107

• A method of training which varies training intensity cyclically. It organises training into periods and cycles that can take place over months and years

• We periodise training to/for:
1. Manage training load and ensures players
don’t burn out or suffer from overtraining
2. Manage injury by managing training load
around competition, reducing chances of
training induced injury, ensuring players spend
more time in competition
3. Training variety by programming training into
meso and micro cycles, each cycle can have a
different focus so that different goals can be
attained

Question 108

Explain the stages of a periodised training plan

Answer 108

Periodised programmes are split into three phases:

• Macrocycles are the largest phase and last between a couple of months to a whole calendar year

• Mesocycles are a smaller phase that can last 4-6 weeks that will have a particular focus (e.g. strength)

• Microcycles divide the mesocycle into smaller components, typically lasting a week and include the basic repetitive cycle of activities

Question 109

Explain the stages of a training year

Answer 109

There are important phases within the training year that affect how a programme is periodised:

• Preparation phase: the meso and micro cycles are designed to physically prepare the athlete for the ensuing competition phase. It contains pre-season and the most physically demanding training.
• The preparation phase is broken into two stages: the general preparation phase is a generic stage at the beginning before individual needs are accounted for in the specific preparation phase

• Competition phase: Meso and microcycles are manipulated to maintain fitness levels to ensure that the athlete is in peak condition for performance. Training is predominantly focused on skill development

• Transition phase: The ‘off-season’ and pre-preparation phase where the predominant focus is on recovering from the competition phase in anticipation of moving into the next macrocycle. It often contains light cardiovascular work

• Peaking and Tapering: In order for athletes to be ready for their competition (weekly match) their training intensity is tapered (decreased) the closer they get to competitions, so they can peak for performance.
• Some coaches will identify important games in the competition phase so training intensity in the weeks leading up to that fixture will be high, before tapering in the penultimate week

Question 110

Identify and describe an alternative example of periodisation

Answer 110

• Double periodised year: the second half of the year begins the process of structure towards a second competitive period

• Research has shown this can initiate greater progress in various indicators including speed, strength and endurance

Question 111

Identify methods of training

Answer 111

• Interval training
• Circuit training
• Cross training
• Continuous training
• Fartlek training
• Flexibility training
• Weight training
• Resistance training
• Assisted training
• Plyometric training
• Speed Agility Quickness (SAQ) training
• Functional (core) stability training