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Part A > Sport and Excercise Psychology > Flashcards

Sport and Excercise Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is motivation? (Sage, 1977)

A

‘the direction and intensity of one’s effort’

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2
Q

What is the bounded rationality perspective? And what do we need to consider?

A

Rewards do not always motivate people to perform at their best. (e.g. playing a footballer more money does not make them score more goals)
- added pressure to perform
- coach / player relationships

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3
Q

Who proposed the Self-Determination Theory?

A

Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000

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4
Q

What is the general overview of the Self-Determination Theory?

A
  • Looks to understand what motivates people rather than how
  • Assumes that humans have a growth mindset
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5
Q

What are the 3 basic psychological needs?

A
  • autonomy (feeling in control of own behaviour and goals)
  • relatedness (sense of belonging and attachment)
  • competence (need to gain mastery of tasks and learn new skills)
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6
Q

What does being more self-determined cause?

A

The more self-determined we are, the more intrinsically motivated we are

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7
Q

What are the 4 types of extrinsic motivation?

A
  1. integrated regulation
  2. identified regulation
  3. introjected regulation
  4. external regulation
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8
Q

What is integrated regulation? Give an example

A

Behaviour is fully incorporated into persons repertoire of skills that satisfy psychological needs
- exercise is a fundamental part of who I am

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9
Q

What is identified regulation? Give an example

A

Motivated by personal values such as learning new skills
- participate in sport because it is important and has benefits

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10
Q

What is introjected regulation? Give an example

A

Motivated to avoid external sources of disapproval or gaining approval
- I would feel guilty if I didn’t exercise

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11
Q

What is external regulation? Give an example

A

Motivated by external reinforcement (gaining rewards or avoiding punishment)
- I participate because other people say I have to

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12
Q

Who proposed the Achievement Goal Theory?

A

Nicholls, 1989

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13
Q

What is the general overview of the Achievement Goal Theory?

A
  • the perceptions of winning and losing are different for everyone
  • how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure
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14
Q

How would you describe someone with a Task-Mastery Orientation?

A
  • take pride in progressive improvement of knowledge (‘I want to be better than I am now’)
  • self referenced (not worried about other people)
  • protected by maladaptive outcomes
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15
Q

How would you describe someone with an Ego Orientation?

A
  • intent on demonstrating superiority over others (motivated by social comparison)
  • current ability is most important
  • outcome orientation (unlikely to try at something they might fail at)
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16
Q

Explain the Motivation Climate proposed by Ames, 1992

A
  • Mastery (task-involving) climate = focused on individual improvement and cooperation
  • Performance (ego-involving) climate = viewing mistakes as failure and outperforming others
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17
Q

Who proposed Attribution Theory?

A

Weiner 1985, 1986

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18
Q

What is Attribution Theory?

A
  • focusses on the causes to explain the outcomes
  • this can affect future motivation
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19
Q

What are the 4 attributions outlined in Wiener’s Attribution Model?

A
  • ability
  • effort
  • task difficulty
  • luck
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20
Q

What are the 2 dimensions that attributions are arranged into?

A
  • locus of causality (internal / external)
  • stability (stable / unstable)
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21
Q

What is the definition of Self-Esteem?

A

“personal judgement of worthiness”
- it is internal (specific to us)

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22
Q

What is the difference between self-esteem and self-concept?

A

SE = what we FEEL about ourselves
SC = what we KNOW about ourselves

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23
Q

Explain the multidimensional hierarchal modal of the self.

A
  • self-concept is at the top
  • branches off to the elements that make up our self-concept (social, physical)
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24
Q

How are athletes with poor self-esteem affected?

A
  • self worth is unstable = they rely on their progress to determine how they feel about themselves
  • failure decreases self-esteem
  • attribute failure internally = less resilient
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25
Q

How are athletes with high self-esteem affected?

A
  • future performance is less affected by failure
  • they know self-worth is not reliant on performance
  • internalise success
  • can develop other areas of self-concept if one isn’t going well
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26
Q

What is the definition of Self-Confidence?

A
  • “the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” - Vealey, 1986
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27
Q

What is the difference between trait and state self-confidence?

A

Trait = confidence in general ability
State = confidence at a specific moment

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28
Q

What are some benefits of self-confidence?

A
  • facilitates concentration
  • affects goals
  • increases effort
  • affects game strategy
  • affects psychological momentum
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29
Q

What are some characteristics of overconfidence?

A
  • overestimate own ability
  • underestimate opposition
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30
Q

What is self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

When predictions set in motion a series of events that ultimately lead to the prediction being true
- positive and negative self-fulfilling prophecy

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31
Q

What is self-efficacy?

A

Perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully in a specific situation

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32
Q

Performance Accomplishments as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • strongest source of self efficacy
  • based on our personal experiences
  • success increases belief in ability
  • failure lower belief
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33
Q

Vicarious Experience as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • imitation / modelling success or failure influences our efficacy beliefs
  • social comparison can be used in the promotion of exercise to specific groups
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34
Q

Verbal Persuasion as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • weakest source of self efficacy
  • someone else is telling us what to do
  • do we believe we can do it?
  • reliant on how realistic the feedback is
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35
Q

Imaginal Experience as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • generating belief about personal efficacy based on imagery through the senses
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36
Q

Physiological states as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • condition of the body and how we interpret this
  • breathing, sweating, muscle tension
  • facilitative = SE is enhanced
  • debilitative = SE is lowered
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37
Q

Emotional states as a source of self-efficacy.

A
  • physiological cues are important components of emotion
  • emotions are an additional source of information about SE
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38
Q

What is arousal?

A

General physiological and psychological activation from deep sleep to intense excitement

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39
Q

What is the Drive Theory? (Hull, 1943)

A
  • proportional linear relationship
  • more arousal = better performance
  • performance is worse for complex skills
    Limitation = even highly skilled players choke in highly charged situations
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39
Q

What is the Inverted-U hypothesis?

A
  • performance will increase with arousal up to an optimal point
  • supported by Arent & Landers, 2010
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39
Q

What is trait anxiety?

A
  • aspect of personality
  • a usually feeling / doesn’t change based on situation
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40
Q

What is state anxiety?

A
  • how you feel right now anxiety wise
  • split into cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety
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41
Q

What is cognitive anxiety?

A

Subdivision of state anxiety
- negative thoughts / psychological responses
- lack of self-confidence
- impaired ability to concentrate
- concerns about perfromance

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42
Q

What is somatic anxiety?

A

Subdivision of state anxiety
- physiological changes
- feelings of nausea
- increased respiration
- increased muscle tension

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43
Q

What are some causes of anxiety?

A
  • pressure (fear of failure n high pressure situations)
  • uncertainty
  • fear of harm
  • frustration
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44
Q

What is stress?

A

substantial imbalance between demand and response capability, under conditions where failure has important consequences

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45
Q

What is the Stress Process (McGrath, 1970)?

A

Stage 1 = environmental demand
Stage 2 = Perception of demand (trait anxious are more likely to perceive as a threat)
Stage 3 = stress response (physical or psychological)
Stage 4 = behavioural consequences

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46
Q

How does parental pressure affect anxiety of young athletes?

A

High pressure in high ego motivational climate = increased anxiety
High pressure in high mastery motivational climate = decreased anxiety

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47
Q

What is the individual zone of optimal functioning (Hanin, 1997, 2000)?

A
  • optimal arousal varies depending on individual skill level, personality characteristics and task
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48
Q

What is the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory?

A
  • predicts performance level varies between different components of anxiety (e.g. cognitive anxiety, self-confidence etc)
    Limitation = doesn’t look at interaction between these components
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49
Q

What is the Catastrophe Theory (Fazey & Hardy, 1991)?

A
  • focuses on the interactive effects of arousal, cognitive anxiety and performance
  • 3D graph
    Low cognitive anxiety = inverted U shape
    High cognitive anxiety = steady increase until catastrophe drop off point
50
Q

What is the difference between groups and teams?

A

Groups = interacting individuals who have a common goal and mutual influence
Teams = collective sense of identify, distinct individual roles, norms of the team, task interdependence

51
Q

Describe the Linear Perspective of how we become a team.

A

FORMING = familiarisation, discovering strengths and weaknesses
STORMING = trying to establish roles and status, infighting
NORMING = conflicts resolved, increased cooperation common goals
PERFORMING = togetherness, team success, defined roles

52
Q

What is Group Cohesion?

A

Dynamic process that reflects the tendency for groups to stick together for the satisfaction of member affective needs

53
Q

Conceptual Model of Cohesion

A
54
Q

What are the 2 types of cohesion?

A

Task Cohesion = the extent of working together to achieve common goals
Social Cohesion = extent to which group members like and enjoy each others company

55
Q

What is the Conceptual Framework of Group Effectiveness (Steiner, 1972)?

A

Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity - Group Process Losses

56
Q

What does the term ‘group process losses’ mean?

A

The Ringelmann Effect
- individual members of a group become increasingly less productive as group size increases

57
Q

What are some causes of ‘social loafing’?

A

Free rider = think their effort is unimportant to the outcome
Minimising strategy = motivated by doing as little as possible
Allocation strategy = save their best efforts for when it will benefit them most

58
Q

FINISH W5 FROM CLARITY AND ACCEPTANCE ONWARDS

A
59
Q

What is attention?

A

A person’s ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situation

60
Q

What are the 4 characteristics to define attention?

A
  • selective attention
  • maintaining alertness
  • situational awareness
  • shifting attention
61
Q

What is the Attentional Control Theory (Eysenck et al, 2007)?

A

Top down processing = directing attention to things that will help achieve specific goal
Bottom up processing = external stimuli triggers an attention focus
- anxiety impairs top down, so we pay more attention to threatening stimuli rather than what we want to focus on

62
Q

What is the Attentional Focus Theory (Nideffer, 1976)?

A

Width = broad vs narrow focus of attention
- broad = aware of lots of stimuli at once
- narrow = exclude irrelevant info
Direction = internal vs external attention
- internal = thoughts / feelings
- external = crowd / lights etc

63
Q

What are some examples of internal focus distractions?

A
  • fear of injury
  • anxiety
  • body discomfort
64
Q

What are some examples of external focus distractions?

A
  • crowd
  • weather
  • coach
  • equipment
65
Q

What are some examples of outcome focus distractions?

A
  • generating money
  • position
  • consequence of poor performance
66
Q

What is the Choking Process as described by Weinberg & Gould (2024)?

A
  1. conditions which lead to choking = high pressure situations
    2a. physical changes = muscle tension / increased breathing rate etc
    2b. attentional changes = internal, narrow focus
  2. performance impairment = timing / coordination breakdown, rushing
67
Q

What is problem focused coping?

A

Altering or managing the cause of the problem
- competition plans
- goal setting
- self-talk
- time management

68
Q

What is emotion focused coping?

A

Regulating the emotional response to problem
- mediation
- relaxation
- mental and behavioural withdrawal

68
Q
A
69
Q

Breathing as a coping method for anxiety.

A

Diaphragmatic breathing
1. lower level of lungs = diaphragm out and abdomen down
2. middle portion = expanding chest and raising rib change
3. upper level = raising chest and shoulders

70
Q

Pressure training as a coping method for anxiety.

A
  • recreating the demands of training (task, performer and environment stressors)
  • adds positive or negative consequences of training
  • acts like exposure therapy
71
Q

What are the 3 types of self-talk?

A

Positive = I can do it
Negative = you’re going mess it up
Instructional = keep your eyes on the ball

72
Q

What is the difference between organic and strategic self-talk?

A

Organic = spontaneous (naturally occurring thoughts) and goal-directed (rational response to spontaneous processes
Strategic = predetermined self-talk plans to trigger motivation

73
Q

What is imagery?

A

Creating experiences in the mind
- visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal

74
Q

What is the Psycho-Neuro-Muscular Imagery Theory?

A
  • proposes that imagery produces similar neuromuscular activity to the actual movement
  • when imagining a movement, you use similar neural pathways to the physical movement
75
Q

What is the Symbolic Learning Imagery Theory (Sackett, 1934)?

A
  • imagery creates a mental ‘blueprint’ of the required action
  • enables rehearsal of cognitive aspects of a skill (strategy, decision making etc)
76
Q

What is the Bio-informational Imagery Theory (Lang, 1977)?

A
  • combining stimulus, response and meaning
    Stimulus = the stimulus we are trying to imagine
    Response = your response to the stimulus
    Meaning = interpretation of the response
77
Q

What is Goal Setting Theory (Locke & Latham)?

A
  • directs focus away from irrelevant tasks
  • motivates us to work towards something
  • influence persistence / resilience
  • discovery of new task-relevant strategies
78
Q

What are the 5 important goal characteristics?

A
  • goal difficulty (motivating or demotivating)
  • goal specificity
  • goal proximity (long, mid or short term goals)
  • goal source (who is setting / developing the goal)
  • goal types (learning or performance goals)
79
Q

What does SMARTER goals stand for?

A

Specific
Measurable
Actioned
Resourced / realistic
Time-based
Evaluate
Reset

80
Q

What is an outcome goal?

A

Ego focused goal
- winning a match, getting a professional contract

81
Q

What is a performance goal?

A

Specific goal to improve performance
- increase shooting accuracy by …%

82
Q

What is a process goal?

A

Goals that focus on the process of reaching a performance goal
- keep your elbows up

83
Q

What is leadership?

A

The process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal

84
Q

What are the 2 types of leaders and how are they chosen?

A

Emergent Leader = come from the group itself either because of skill or they are nominated by the group
- team have a say over who the leader is
Prescribed Leader = appointed by an outside body
- team don’t have a say and may not like them

85
Q

What is the Basic Leadership Model?

A

Leadership –> Psychological Outcomes (motivation, confidence) –> Behavioural / Performance Outcomes (effort invested in training, sacrifices made for sport)

86
Q

What is autocratic / task orientated leadership?

A
  • don’t care about opinions of athletes
  • no group input is welcome
  • dictator
  • inflexible approach
  • cold and impersonal
  • group don’t know how to function without leader
  • create plans and priorities
  • good with less advanced athletes
87
Q

What is democratic / social or person orientated leadership?

A
  • make decisions after group consultation
  • actively encourage group involvement
  • more relaxed / informal approach to leadership
  • group is able to function when leader is absent
  • focussed on developing relationships
  • effective with experienced, highly task-orientated athletes
88
Q

What is Laissez-faire leadership?

A
  • ‘no leadership’
  • allow group to make decisions and only step in if needed
89
Q

What is the Trait Approach to leadership?

A
  • leaders are ‘born not made’
  • successful leaders have specific characteristics that make them good leaders no matter the situation
  • BUT we don’t know for certain what these characteristics are
90
Q

What is the Behavioural Approach to leadership?

A
  • leaders are ‘made not born’
  • anyone can learn to be a good leader
  • people observe behaviours of good (or bad) leaders and mimic these
91
Q

What is the issue with research into leadership?

A
  • not sport / team specific (lots of research was done on ‘groups’ not ‘teams’ and they have different characteristics)
92
Q

What is the Multidimensional Model of Leadership (Chelladurai, 1978, 1990, 1993)?

A
  • framework allowing leadership to be applied specifically to sport
  • effective leadership is dynamic and based on interactions between leader, group and situation
  • SEE MINDMAP
93
Q

What is transactional leadership?

A
  • series of exchanges between leader and follower
  • leaders use rewards and punishments to foster compliance
94
Q

What is transformational leadership?

A
  • where leaders go beyond their own self-interests to inspire and encourage to go beyond expected standard
  • athletes go beyond what they think they can achieve
95
Q

What is the Meta-Cognitive Model of Vision, Support and Challenge (Arthur et al., 2012)?

A
  • create an inspirational vision for the future
  • provide support
  • provide challenge
96
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Inspirational Motivation and the predicted result.

A
  • inspiring others to achieve vision
    VISION
97
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Appropriate Role Modelling and the predicted result.

A
  • leader sets example for others to follow
    VISION
98
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Fosters Acceptance of Group Goals and the predicted result.

A
  • promotes cooperation
  • developing teamwork
    VISION
99
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Individual Consideration and the predicted result.

A
  • recognise individual differences
  • concern for development of followers
    SUPPORT
100
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Contingent Reward and the predicted result.

A
  • positive reinforcement of appropriate behaviour
    SUPPORT
101
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of Intellectual Stimulation and the predicted result.

A
  • nurturing creative and proactive innovative thinking
    CHALLENGE
102
Q

Describe the leader behaviour of High Performance Expectations and the predicted result.

A
  • expectation for excellence
    CHALLENGE
103
Q

What are some issues with Transformational Leadership?

A
  • overemphasis at dyadic level (leaders 1:1 with athletes rather than as a group)
  • insufficient research into how situational variables affect leadership
  • we haven’t researched when transformational leadership is NOT good
104
Q

Why do people excerise?

A
  • weight control
  • reduce risk of cardiovascular disease
  • reduction in stress and depression
  • enjoyment
  • enhancement of self-esteem
  • opportunity to socialise
105
Q

What are the Physical Activity Guidelines?

A
  • 150 mins of moderate intensity per week
    OR
  • 75 mins of vigorous intensity per week
106
Q

What did Knox et al (2013) and Hunter et al (2014) find about physical activity guidelines?

A

Knox = only 18% could correctly recall the guidelines
Hunter = only 8.4% could correctly identify moderate to vigorous activities from a list of options

107
Q

What did Netz et al (2008) find were reasons for omitting exercise in different age groups?

A

Older adults (60-78) = health related reasons (what if I get hurt, exacerbating existing health conditions), internal barriers (e.g. not the sporty type)
Adolescents = parents more interested in academic success, previous physical inactivity, being female

108
Q

What are the health effects of sedentary behaviour?

A
  • highest sedentary group have 73% increased risk of metabolic syndrome
  • increase in sedentary behaviour = increased cardiovascular disease
109
Q

What is the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1974)?

A
  • cost benefit analysis of partaking in physical activity
  • attempts to explain and predict health behaviours
  • wasn’t designed with exercise in mind, it was designed for disease
110
Q

What is Perceived Susceptibility and its application?

A

Ones opinion of chances of getting a condition
- define population at risk

111
Q

What is Perceived Severity and its application?

A

Ones opinion of how serious a condition is and what its consequences are
- specify consequences of risk and condition

112
Q

What is Perceived Benefits and its application?

A

Ones belief in the efficacy of advised action to reduce risk
- define action to take
- clarify expected positive effects

113
Q

What is Cues to Action and its application?

A

Strategies to activate readiness
- provide ‘how-to’ info
- promote awareness

114
Q

What is Perceived Barriers and its application?

A

Ones opinion of tangible and psychological costs of the advised actions
- identify and reduce barriers through reassurance, incentives, assistance

115
Q

What is Self-Efficacy and its application?

A

Confidence in ones ability to take action
- provide training, guidance in performing action

116
Q

What is the Behaviour Modification Approach?

A
  • strategy for enhancing exercise adherence
  • 10-25% increase in frequency of PA compared to controls
  • makes use of prompts to initiate behaviour
117
Q

What are prompts and what effect do they have?

A
  • cues that initiate behaviour (posters, notes, campaigns)
    Health sign = increase stair use from 69% to 77%)
    Additional e-mail = increase to 85%
    Poster removed = decline to 67%
118
Q

What are Reinforcement Approaches?

A
  • strategy for enhancing exercise adherence
  • provide feedback and allow for self-monitoring (apple watches, handwritten logs)
119
Q

What did Brickwood et al (2019) find about activity trackers and PA?

A
  • wearing activity trackers significantly increased step count, moderate and vigorous activity
120
Q

What did Laranjo et al (2021) find about smartphone apps / wearable trackers and PA?

A
  • moderate increase in PA corresponding to increased steps
121
Q

What did Carter et al (2018) find about health apps and PA?

A
  • increased awareness of PA behaviour
  • increased motivation
  • unmet goals led to discouragement, guilt, shame
  • unhealthy checking of data
121
Q
A

Part A (5 decks)

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