Early Years Flashcards
What is the ‘looking glass self’?
G.H Mead - the self is derived from seeing ourselves as others see us
What are upward and downward comparisons and who came up with it?
Medvec et al (1995)
Bronze medalists are happier than silver medalists because they look down and are happy that they got a medal, whereas silver medallists look up and are sad they missed out on gold
What are the public and private self? Who was it?
Private self = trying to match behaviour with internal standards
Public self = presenting yourself in a positive light
Carver and Scheier (1972)
What are the 3 parts of the Self Discrepancy Theory and who came up with it?
Higgins (1987)
Actual self = how you perceive yourself
Ideal self = what you want for your future self
Ought self = the person you feel obliged to be
What happens when there is gaps between the actual and ideal self?
What happens when there is gaps between the actual and ought self?
Actual / ideal = dejection and depression
Actual / ought = agitation / anxiety
What is the definition of social psychology?
“the scientific attempt to explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, or imagined presence of other human-beings”
What are social cognitions?
“Cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behaviour”
What are the main points of Asch’s Configural Model?
Central traits = most important and have a disproportionate influence on impression making
Peripheral traits = insignificant with little influence
How do primacy and recency affect impression formation?
Primacy = traits presented first disproportionately influence the final impression
Recency = also influence but mainly happen if you are distracted
What are Implicit Personality Theories?
Certain characteristics go together to form a specific type of personality
(physically attractive people should be listened to, athletes in adverts should be trusted)
What are schemas and why are they helpful?
Cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a concept of stimulus (Fiske & Taylor 1991)
allow us to quickly make sense / make a decision
What are heuristics?
Cognitive shortcuts
What are attributions?
How people explain their own and others’ behaviour
What is the Theory of Naive Psychology? (Heider, 1958)
- theory of attributions
- dispositional attribution = the persons personality causes their behaviour
- situational attribution = their environment causes their behaviour
What is the Covariation Model? (Kelley, 1967)
- theory of attribution
- consistency - is it every time?
- distinctiveness - is it in every situation?
- consensus - is it just you?
What is attributional theory? (Weiner, 1979, 1985)
Success or failure on a task leads us to make an attribution based on:
- stability
- locus of causality
- controllability
What is Fundamental Attribution Error?
over emphasis of personal (internal) factors and under estimation of situational (external) factors
What is adaptation (schemas)?
Relates to changing schemas to accommodate for new knowledge
What is assimilation (schemas)?
new knowledge is similar to old knowledge so is able to be fit into schemas easily
What is accommodation (schemas)?
new knowledge doesn’t easily fit into existing schemas
What are the sub-stages of the Sensori-motor stage of development?
- reflexive schemes
- primary circular reactions
- secondary circular reactions
- coordination of secondary schemes (object permanence)
- tertiary circular reactions
- beginning of thought
What are the 2 substages of the pre-operational stage of development and some of their characteristics?
- symbolic function substage - egocentrism, animism
- intuitive thought substage - transitive inferences, conservation tasks
What is Zone of Proximal Development and who came up with it?
Vygotsky
Distance between actual development and the potential development under adult supervision
What did Bruner do?
- Introduced the role of scaffolding and child-centred learning
How was Case’s Neo-piagetian theory different to Piaget’s original theory?
Adopted an informational processing perspective to cognitive development
- changes in each stage happen due to increases in central processing and working mem. cap.
What is Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory?
When attempting to solve tasks, children generate a variety of strategies.
What is the actor-observer effect?
- we attribute our own and others behaviour differently
- we view our own behaviour externally, but view others internally
What did Maccoby (1980) say were 4 signs of infant attachment?
- proximity to caregiver
- distress on seperation
- happy on reunion
- orient actions to caregiver
What were the cross-cultural findings about attachment from Fox (1977)? What do they suggest?
- found 1-2 year olds strongly attached to both their mother and nursery caregiver, who were both able to provide and safe base
- suggests quality of attachment over quantity of time spent together
What describes Type A children?
- insecure avoidant
- independent
What describes Type B children?
- secure
- use mother as secure base to build confidence to explore on their own
What describes Types C children?
- ambivalent / resistant
- displays clingy behaviour but also rejects the mother when angry at her
What were Ainsworth’s findings in % of attachment styles?
A - 21%
B - 65%
C - 14%
Describe cross cultural findings of attachment styles?
- Germany has a much higher type A population (40-50%) as it is an individualistic society
- Japan has a much higher type C population (35%) as it is a collectivist society
What is the 4th type of attachment style?
- insecure disorganised
- displays disorganised / contradictory behaviours
What are the 4 adult attachment styles?
- autonomous / secure (B)
- dismissing (A)
- preoccupied / enmeshed (C)
- unresolved mourning / loss (D)
What is phonology? What is a phoneme?
- the perception and production of sounds used in language
- the smallest unit of sound
What is orthography? What is a grapheme?
- letters
- the smallest unit of text
What are semantics? What are morphemes?
- meanings
- the smallest meaningful unit
What are pragmatics?
- non-linguistic communication
- social conventions
- perspective taking (hand gestures, facial expressions)
- intonation
What are the 4 stages of language development?
- prelinguistic: the newborn
- prelinguistic: the first year
- first words
- first sentences
How does the prelinguistic stage develop over time?
New born - reflexive vocalisations
1 month - recognise and distinguish sounds
2-3 months - coo, smile, laugh
4-6 months - babbling, echolalia, pragmatics
6-9 months - intense babbling
9-12 months - comprehension of simple instructions
What happens in the first words stage?
- comprehension over production
- first word around 1
What happens in the sentences stage?
- most grammatical constructions happen at 4-5 years
What do nativists believe about language?
Humans have an innate desire to communicate and acquire language
What do behaviourists believe about language?
Language is learned through imitation and reinforcement
What are the 3 stages of the language stage model? Who came up with it?
Frith, Ehri
1. logographic stage
- salient cues, expect large objects to have long spellings
2. alphabetic stage
- phoneme-grapheme correspondence
3. orthographic stage
- learn sentence structures and plurals
- vocab develops from reading
What are the 4 stages of Holdaway’s language model?
- observation
- collaboration
- practice
- performance
What are some properties of a group as defined by Johnson and Johnson, 1987?
- individuals who are interacting
- individuals who are interdependent
- join together to achieve a goal
- influence eachother
What are the 2 main ideas of Tajfel and Turners (1986) Social Identity Theory?
- society is structured in distinct social groups competing for power resources
- social identities define how people view and evaluate themselves
What is the Prisoner’s Dilema and what does it suggest?
- both confess = moderate sentence
- neither confess = light sentence
- one confesses = lower sentence for only them
- suggests communication is key, by not cooperating you tend to end up worse off
What are the 3 stages of Sherif’s Summer Camp Study (1953-61)?
- boys at camp don’t know about other group but complete activities and establish group identity
- groups brought together to complete win-lose competitions, results in conflict between groups and in-group favouritism
- brought together for non-competitive activities with cooperation, results in less aggressive behaviour and reduction of in-group favouritism
What is the Realistic Conflict Theory (1966)?
- the nature of goal relations determines the nature of interindividualisation and intergroup relations
- mutual goals = cooperation
- mutually exclusive goals = competition
Describe crowd behaviour
LeBon (1908) says crowds induce primitive and homogenous behaviour because:
- members are anonymous
- ideas spread rapidly
- unconscious antisocial motives are released
What is aggression?
intent to harm another person, behaviour resulting in personal injury or destruction on property
How does SLT apply to aggression?
- if aggressive behaviour has been successful in the past then it is reinforced
- likelihood of aggressive behaviour being rewarded or punished
Straus et al (2003)
- longitudinal study
- recorded how often were spanked
- positive correlation between spanking and antisocial behaviour
Black and Bevan (1992)
- questionnaire before and after watching a film
- naturally more aggressive people chose the violent film
- watching violent film did increase aggression
Bryan and Test (1967)
Drivers 50% more likely to help when they drive past and witness someone helping change a tire than no witnessing it
Hornstein (1970)
More likely to return at lost wallet after watching someone seem pleased to offer assistance compared to those who looked displeased
- vicarious reinforcement
Latane and Darley (1968)
- 75% took action when alone
- 38% when 2 strangers
- 10% with 2 confederates
What are the 5 stages of Latane and Darley’s Cognitive Model?
- pay attention
- define event as an emergency
- assume responsibility
- decide what to do
- give help
Describe what relationships look like in the early years.
- clear interest in other infants
- direct gaze and smiles at other infants
- change behaviour when excluded
What are the sociometric status types as outlined by Coie, Dodge and Copotelli (1982)?
- popular
- controversial
- neglected
- rejected
- average
What are some key features of a friend as outlined by Newcomb and Bagwell (1995)?
- reciprocal
- intimate
- intense social activity
- frequent conflict resolution
- effective task performance
Describe pre-school friendships
Instrumental Relationships
- liking same things, doing shared activities
- importance of pretend play
Describe middle childhood friendships
Intimate Relationships
- similar attitudes and values
- caring, loyalty, trust
- can be about reward and cost
Describe friendships in adolescence
- based on values and beliefs rather than shared activities
- stable friendships
- romantic relationships begin
What are the 4 roles that bystanders of bullying can take?
- assistant - join in
- reinforcers - positive reinforcement of bully
- outsiders - withdraw form situation
- defenders - take victims side, offer support
What were Fagen’s (1974) definitions of play?
- functional: the purpose of behaviour is internally motivated and has no external goal
- structural: the types of behaviours are play signals
What are the 5 descriptors of play outlined by Smith and Vollstedt (1985)?
- intrinsic motivation
- positive affect
- non-literary
- flexibility
- means / ends
What did Garvey (1991) define play as?
- pleasurable
- no extrinsic goals
- spontaneous and voluntary
- has active involvement
- has certain systematic relations to what is and is not play
List some examples of why children play.
- exploration-play
- motivates children to learn
- builds confidence
- links to language learning
- builds cognitive and social development
- helps understand emotions
- to learn adult roles
What are Parten’s (1932)stages in the development of play?
- unoccupied play
- solitary play
- onlooker play
- parallel play
- associative play
- cooperative play
What were the 3 stages of play that Piaget proposed?
- sensori-motor play
- symbolic / representational play
- games with rules
What were the 4 more detailed stages of play outlined by Smilansky (1968)?
- functional play
- constructive play
- dramatic play
- games with rules
What are the 4 types of play outlines by Garvey (1991) and Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003)?
- physical play
- play with objects
- fantasy play
- language play
How does agent use develop in fantasy play?
- self as agent
- passive other agent
- passive substitute agent
- active other agent
What differences are there between genders in play outlined by Maccoby (1998)?
Girls = same age, small groups
Boys = large age range, large groups
