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Part A > Early Years > Flashcards

Early Years Flashcards

1
Q

What is the ‘looking glass self’?

A

G.H Mead - the self is derived from seeing ourselves as others see us

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2
Q

What are upward and downward comparisons and who came up with it?

A

Medvec et al (1995)
Bronze medalists are happier than silver medalists because they look down and are happy that they got a medal, whereas silver medallists look up and are sad they missed out on gold

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3
Q

What are the public and private self? Who was it?

A

Private self = trying to match behaviour with internal standards
Public self = presenting yourself in a positive light
Carver and Scheier (1972)

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4
Q

What are the 3 parts of the Self Discrepancy Theory and who came up with it?

A

Higgins (1987)
Actual self = how you perceive yourself
Ideal self = what you want for your future self
Ought self = the person you feel obliged to be

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5
Q

What happens when there is gaps between the actual and ideal self?
What happens when there is gaps between the actual and ought self?

A

Actual / ideal = dejection and depression
Actual / ought = agitation / anxiety

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6
Q

What is the definition of social psychology?

A

“the scientific attempt to explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, or imagined presence of other human-beings”

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7
Q

What are social cognitions?

A

“Cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behaviour”

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8
Q

What are the main points of Asch’s Configural Model?

A

Central traits = most important and have a disproportionate influence on impression making
Peripheral traits = insignificant with little influence

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9
Q

How do primacy and recency affect impression formation?

A

Primacy = traits presented first disproportionately influence the final impression
Recency = also influence but mainly happen if you are distracted

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10
Q

What are Implicit Personality Theories?

A

Certain characteristics go together to form a specific type of personality
(physically attractive people should be listened to, athletes in adverts should be trusted)

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11
Q

What are schemas and why are they helpful?

A

Cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a concept of stimulus (Fiske & Taylor 1991)
allow us to quickly make sense / make a decision

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12
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Cognitive shortcuts

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13
Q

What are attributions?

A

How people explain their own and others’ behaviour

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14
Q

What is the Theory of Naive Psychology? (Heider, 1958)

A
  • theory of attributions
  • dispositional attribution = the persons personality causes their behaviour
  • situational attribution = their environment causes their behaviour
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15
Q

What is the Covariation Model? (Kelley, 1967)

A
  • theory of attribution
  • consistency - is it every time?
  • distinctiveness - is it in every situation?
  • consensus - is it just you?
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16
Q

What is attributional theory? (Weiner, 1979, 1985)

A

Success or failure on a task leads us to make an attribution based on:
- stability
- locus of causality
- controllability

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17
Q

What is Fundamental Attribution Error?

A

over emphasis of personal (internal) factors and under estimation of situational (external) factors

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18
Q

What is adaptation (schemas)?

A

Relates to changing schemas to accommodate for new knowledge

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19
Q

What is assimilation (schemas)?

A

new knowledge is similar to old knowledge so is able to be fit into schemas easily

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20
Q

What is accommodation (schemas)?

A

new knowledge doesn’t easily fit into existing schemas

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21
Q

What are the sub-stages of the Sensori-motor stage of development?

A
  1. reflexive schemes
  2. primary circular reactions
  3. secondary circular reactions
  4. coordination of secondary schemes (object permanence)
  5. tertiary circular reactions
  6. beginning of thought
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22
Q

What are the 2 substages of the pre-operational stage of development and some of their characteristics?

A
  1. symbolic function substage - egocentrism, animism
  2. intuitive thought substage - transitive inferences, conservation tasks
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23
Q

What is Zone of Proximal Development and who came up with it?

A

Vygotsky
Distance between actual development and the potential development under adult supervision

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24
Q

What did Bruner do?

A
  • Introduced the role of scaffolding and child-centred learning
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25
Q

How was Case’s Neo-piagetian theory different to Piaget’s original theory?

A

Adopted an informational processing perspective to cognitive development
- changes in each stage happen due to increases in central processing and working mem. cap.

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26
Q

What is Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory?

A

When attempting to solve tasks, children generate a variety of strategies.

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27
Q

What is the actor-observer effect?

A
  • we attribute our own and others behaviour differently
  • we view our own behaviour externally, but view others internally
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28
Q

What did Maccoby (1980) say were 4 signs of infant attachment?

A
  1. proximity to caregiver
  2. distress on seperation
  3. happy on reunion
  4. orient actions to caregiver
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29
Q

What were the cross-cultural findings about attachment from Fox (1977)? What do they suggest?

A
  • found 1-2 year olds strongly attached to both their mother and nursery caregiver, who were both able to provide and safe base
  • suggests quality of attachment over quantity of time spent together
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30
Q

What describes Type A children?

A
  • insecure avoidant
  • independent
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31
Q

What describes Type B children?

A
  • secure
  • use mother as secure base to build confidence to explore on their own
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32
Q

What describes Types C children?

A
  • ambivalent / resistant
  • displays clingy behaviour but also rejects the mother when angry at her
33
Q

What were Ainsworth’s findings in % of attachment styles?

A

A - 21%
B - 65%
C - 14%

34
Q

Describe cross cultural findings of attachment styles?

A
  • Germany has a much higher type A population (40-50%) as it is an individualistic society
  • Japan has a much higher type C population (35%) as it is a collectivist society
35
Q

What is the 4th type of attachment style?

A
  • insecure disorganised
  • displays disorganised / contradictory behaviours
36
Q

What are the 4 adult attachment styles?

A
  1. autonomous / secure (B)
  2. dismissing (A)
  3. preoccupied / enmeshed (C)
  4. unresolved mourning / loss (D)
37
Q

What is phonology? What is a phoneme?

A
  • the perception and production of sounds used in language
  • the smallest unit of sound
38
Q

What is orthography? What is a grapheme?

A
  • letters
  • the smallest unit of text
39
Q

What are semantics? What are morphemes?

A
  • meanings
  • the smallest meaningful unit
40
Q

What are pragmatics?

A
  • non-linguistic communication
  • social conventions
  • perspective taking (hand gestures, facial expressions)
  • intonation
41
Q

What are the 4 stages of language development?

A
  1. prelinguistic: the newborn
  2. prelinguistic: the first year
  3. first words
  4. first sentences
42
Q

How does the prelinguistic stage develop over time?

A

New born - reflexive vocalisations
1 month - recognise and distinguish sounds
2-3 months - coo, smile, laugh
4-6 months - babbling, echolalia, pragmatics
6-9 months - intense babbling
9-12 months - comprehension of simple instructions

43
Q

What happens in the first words stage?

A
  • comprehension over production
  • first word around 1
44
Q

What happens in the sentences stage?

A
  • most grammatical constructions happen at 4-5 years
45
Q

What do nativists believe about language?

A

Humans have an innate desire to communicate and acquire language

46
Q

What do behaviourists believe about language?

A

Language is learned through imitation and reinforcement

47
Q

What are the 3 stages of the language stage model? Who came up with it?

A

Frith, Ehri
1. logographic stage
- salient cues, expect large objects to have long spellings
2. alphabetic stage
- phoneme-grapheme correspondence
3. orthographic stage
- learn sentence structures and plurals
- vocab develops from reading

48
Q

What are the 4 stages of Holdaway’s language model?

A
  1. observation
  2. collaboration
  3. practice
  4. performance
49
Q

What are some properties of a group as defined by Johnson and Johnson, 1987?

A
  • individuals who are interacting
  • individuals who are interdependent
  • join together to achieve a goal
  • influence eachother
50
Q

What are the 2 main ideas of Tajfel and Turners (1986) Social Identity Theory?

A
  1. society is structured in distinct social groups competing for power resources
  2. social identities define how people view and evaluate themselves
51
Q

What is the Prisoner’s Dilema and what does it suggest?

A
  • both confess = moderate sentence
  • neither confess = light sentence
  • one confesses = lower sentence for only them
  • suggests communication is key, by not cooperating you tend to end up worse off
52
Q

What are the 3 stages of Sherif’s Summer Camp Study (1953-61)?

A
  1. boys at camp don’t know about other group but complete activities and establish group identity
  2. groups brought together to complete win-lose competitions, results in conflict between groups and in-group favouritism
  3. brought together for non-competitive activities with cooperation, results in less aggressive behaviour and reduction of in-group favouritism
53
Q

What is the Realistic Conflict Theory (1966)?

A
  • the nature of goal relations determines the nature of interindividualisation and intergroup relations
  • mutual goals = cooperation
  • mutually exclusive goals = competition
54
Q

Describe crowd behaviour

A

LeBon (1908) says crowds induce primitive and homogenous behaviour because:
- members are anonymous
- ideas spread rapidly
- unconscious antisocial motives are released

55
Q

What is aggression?

A

intent to harm another person, behaviour resulting in personal injury or destruction on property

56
Q

How does SLT apply to aggression?

A
  • if aggressive behaviour has been successful in the past then it is reinforced
  • likelihood of aggressive behaviour being rewarded or punished
57
Q

Straus et al (2003)

A
  • longitudinal study
  • recorded how often were spanked
  • positive correlation between spanking and antisocial behaviour
57
Q

Black and Bevan (1992)

A
  • questionnaire before and after watching a film
  • naturally more aggressive people chose the violent film
  • watching violent film did increase aggression
57
Q

Bryan and Test (1967)

A

Drivers 50% more likely to help when they drive past and witness someone helping change a tire than no witnessing it

58
Q

Hornstein (1970)

A

More likely to return at lost wallet after watching someone seem pleased to offer assistance compared to those who looked displeased
- vicarious reinforcement

58
Q

Latane and Darley (1968)

A
  • 75% took action when alone
  • 38% when 2 strangers
  • 10% with 2 confederates
58
Q

What are the 5 stages of Latane and Darley’s Cognitive Model?

A
  1. pay attention
  2. define event as an emergency
  3. assume responsibility
  4. decide what to do
  5. give help
58
Q

Describe what relationships look like in the early years.

A
  • clear interest in other infants
  • direct gaze and smiles at other infants
  • change behaviour when excluded
58
Q

What are the sociometric status types as outlined by Coie, Dodge and Copotelli (1982)?

A
  • popular
  • controversial
  • neglected
  • rejected
  • average
59
Q

What are some key features of a friend as outlined by Newcomb and Bagwell (1995)?

A
  • reciprocal
  • intimate
  • intense social activity
  • frequent conflict resolution
  • effective task performance
60
Q

Describe pre-school friendships

A

Instrumental Relationships
- liking same things, doing shared activities
- importance of pretend play

61
Q

Describe middle childhood friendships

A

Intimate Relationships
- similar attitudes and values
- caring, loyalty, trust
- can be about reward and cost

61
Q

Describe friendships in adolescence

A
  • based on values and beliefs rather than shared activities
  • stable friendships
  • romantic relationships begin
62
Q

What are the 4 roles that bystanders of bullying can take?

A
  1. assistant - join in
  2. reinforcers - positive reinforcement of bully
  3. outsiders - withdraw form situation
  4. defenders - take victims side, offer support
63
Q

What were Fagen’s (1974) definitions of play?

A
  1. functional: the purpose of behaviour is internally motivated and has no external goal
  2. structural: the types of behaviours are play signals
64
Q

What are the 5 descriptors of play outlined by Smith and Vollstedt (1985)?

A
  1. intrinsic motivation
  2. positive affect
  3. non-literary
  4. flexibility
  5. means / ends
65
Q

What did Garvey (1991) define play as?

A
  1. pleasurable
  2. no extrinsic goals
  3. spontaneous and voluntary
  4. has active involvement
  5. has certain systematic relations to what is and is not play
66
Q

List some examples of why children play.

A
  • exploration-play
  • motivates children to learn
  • builds confidence
  • links to language learning
  • builds cognitive and social development
  • helps understand emotions
  • to learn adult roles
67
Q

What are Parten’s (1932)stages in the development of play?

A
  1. unoccupied play
  2. solitary play
  3. onlooker play
  4. parallel play
  5. associative play
  6. cooperative play
68
Q

What were the 3 stages of play that Piaget proposed?

A
  1. sensori-motor play
  2. symbolic / representational play
  3. games with rules
69
Q

What were the 4 more detailed stages of play outlined by Smilansky (1968)?

A
  1. functional play
  2. constructive play
  3. dramatic play
  4. games with rules
70
Q

What are the 4 types of play outlines by Garvey (1991) and Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003)?

A
  1. physical play
  2. play with objects
  3. fantasy play
  4. language play
71
Q

How does agent use develop in fantasy play?

A
  • self as agent
  • passive other agent
  • passive substitute agent
  • active other agent
72
Q

What differences are there between genders in play outlined by Maccoby (1998)?

A

Girls = same age, small groups
Boys = large age range, large groups

Part A (5 decks)

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