Special systems Flashcards
What is the function of genital organs?
Produce gametes and secrete hormones// hormones control development and function of reproductive system// control development of sex-specific body form// involved in fertilisation and development of foetus
What are the main components of the genital system?
Testes- produce sperm and hormones / genital duct - transport + stores mature sperm / accessory glands- produces seminal fluid / external genitals (penis and scrotum)
What is the basic structure of the testes ?
pair of flatterened organs in a egg shape/ located within scrotumn outside the body // connects to the duct system
What is intersitisum?
Loose connective tissue surrounding tubules in testes
What is the tunica vaginalls?
Closed sac of serous membrane containing serous fluid within the testes
What is basic structure of the scrotum ?
Skin, connective tissue and dartos muscle - covered externally by pubic hair and contains penis
What is the pathway of testis descent ?
Beings at kidney and descends into scrotum
What odes cryptorchidism refer to?
Testes not fully being descended at birth
What does the inguinal canal contain and what is its function?
pathway for spermatic cord in males and contains: Ilioinguinal nerve // Spermatic cord// Arteries , nerves and viens // Vas defences
Why is the epididymis covered in micrvolli?
increases the surface area to reabsorb degenerated sperm- recycles damaged spermatozoa// function -> recycles damaged spermatozoa/ stores and matures
What is the function of the seminal vessicels?
smooth muscle wall which contracts to empty during ejaculation
What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?
neutralise any urine through alkaline mucus secretions
What is the 3 sections of the uretha?
PROSTATIC URETHRA- receives ejaculatory + prostatic ducts // MEMBRANOUS URETHRA - shortest // SPONGY URETHRA - receives bulbourethral gland ducts
What regulates spermatogenesis ?
controlled by the brain / GnRH stimulates release of LH and FSH from pituitary gland // LH stimulates production of testosterone in testis // Testosterone and FSH stimulates Sertoli cell function supporting developing GCs.
What is the anatomy of the ovaries?
flatterened ovoid (3cm long) // suspended ligaaments on pelvic wall // simple cuboidal germinal epithelium containing outer cortex and inner medulla // contains oocytes and supporting cells
What is the anatomy of the fallopian tubes?
Fimbriae – finger-like, ciliated projections which capture the ovum from the surface of the ovary. Infundibulum – funnel-shaped opening near the ovary to which fimbriae are attached. Ampulla – widest section of the uterine tubes
What is the anatomy of the uterus?
What is the anatomy of the vagina?
3 layers -> inner mucosa wall, muscularis and adventitia // gateway to uterus and passageway for menstral flow // birth canal during labour
What is the process of gametogenesis in females ?
diploid (2n) cells undergo cell division through meiosis to form haploid (1n) gametes
What are some histological changes which occur during cervical cancer?
Epithelial charges to squamous at certain times
What features are homologues in males and females ?
FEAMLE -> MALE
labia majora -> scrotum
labia minora-> spongy urethra
vestibule-> membranous uretha
bulb of vestibule -> bulb of penis
clitoris -> gland penis
skene glands -> prostate
bartholin’s gland -> cowper gland
What are the external and internal female genitals ?
EXTERNAL - clitoris / labia major/ labia minor/ vestibular gland// INTERNAL - ovaries / fallopian tubes / uterus / vagina
What are some supporting cells in the ovarian tube?
GRANULOSA CELLS -> epitheial multi-layered cells - later becomes corpus luteum // Theca cells -
What is ovulation?
release of secondary oocyte and zona pellucida from the ovary into peritoneal cavity
What is aterisa?
Degeneration of follicles which do not mature during ovulation
What does puberty in females lead to?
increased release of GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
What do hormonal contraceptives target?
Supress LH, rather than FSH // as a FSH surge would make infertile
What are the main stages of oocyte development?
pre-natal maturation -> before birth
post-natal development -> at puberty (monthly until menopause)
What is the corpus luteus?
a mass of cells which form in the uterus// secretes progesterone and estrigeb and during pregnancy it enlarges and remains throughout pregnancy
What is the polycystic ovaries ?
large number of harmless follicles // results in the women not being able to release the egg and therefore no ovulation occur -> leads to difficulties conceiving
What are some general senses ?
touch / temperature / nociception (pain) / proprioception
What are some special sense?
Vision / hearing / equilibrium (balance) / olfaction / gustation
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
sensation detects stimuli and recognises an event has occurred// perception is the interception and appreciation of that event
What is the sensory pathway?
STIMULI-> SENSORY RECPTOR (transducer) –down ascending stimulus driven mechanism –> AFFERENT SENSORY NEURONE-> CNS (integregation and peception) -> DECENDING NEURONES– down descending gola-directed mechanisms -> SENSORY RECEPTOR
*it is a circle
What are the 3 classes of sensory receptors?
MODUALITY (reacts to articular stimuli) e.g. chemoreceptors / thermoreceptors … // DISTRIBUTION - general senses and specail sense // ORIGIN OF STIMULUS (interceptors/ proprioceptors/ exteroceptors )
What is the function of transducers ?
convert stimuli into receptor potentials -> produce graded potentials and transmit voltage
What does olfaction and gustation refer to?
olfaction -> smell // gustaion = taste
What receptors use for each sense ?
taste + smell -> chemoreceptor // hearing + balance-> mechanoreceptors // vision -> photoreceptor
What is the peripheral organ of sense of smell?
Olfactory sensory receptor are bipolar neurone// olfactory epithelium consist of supporting cells and basal cells and olfactory receptor cells
What is the transduction and neural pathway ?
- odorant molecules bins to receptor proteins on cilia/ 2. depolarisation of olfactory receptor cells // 3. threshold much be reached and ATP generation of ATPs sent to olfactory bulb // 4. in the golmerus receptor nerve ending excite mitral cells that forward the signal to primary olfactory cortex // 5. olfactory neurone from the olfactory nerve //
OLFACTORY TRACK -> PRIMARY OLFACTORY CORTEX -> ORBITOFRONTA CORTEX
How is taste detected?
using taste buds (containing taste receptors which detect chemical changes they also contain microvilli which disolve food molecules) //
How is sight sensed?
light is converted into neural signals in retina (a thin layer of cells located on the back of the eye ) which contain photoreceptors (rods and cones )
Compare rods and cones?
RODS contain the photopigment of rhodopsin which is activated in low light (night vision ) and produces grey shades) // CONES contain opsin (s cone/ m cone and l cones) and are active in intense light alike day time and identifies colour shades
What is the 3 neurakl chain in the retina?
photoreceptors -> bioplar cells -> retinal ganglion cells
Where do axons from the retina move to ?
PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX // SUPERIOR COLLICULUS // SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS
What are the components of the outer ear?
tympanic membrane and auditory ossicles
What are the components of the inner ear ?
cochlea + 3 semi-circular canal and vestibule
How is hearing and equilibrium sensed?
HEARING -> in cochlea // EQUILIBRIUM -> semicircular canal and vestibule
What is the cochlea?
A snail like structure which is filled with hair cells (act as receptors) which transduct mechanical wave into electrical signals
What is the passageway of sound waves?
- Tympanic membrane (vibrates) -> auditory ossicles conduct vibration into inner ear -> pressure is applied to the perilymph -> waves distort at basilar membrane ->
How is wave frequency determined?
Basilar membrane is a mechanical sound analyser -> different regions of the membrane vibrate in response to the sound wave
What detects head position and head movement?
HEAD POSITION -> utricle and saccule / HEAD MOVEMENT -> semicircular canal
What is the function of the vestibulocochlear nerve?
a sensory nerve responsible for transmitting both hearing and balance information from the inner ear to the brain
What are the main categories of stem cells?
Totipotent (any cell) // pluripotent (any except placenta) // multipotent (multiple cell types )// unipotent (one cell type )
What does potency refer to?
the potential to differentiate
What are future applications for stem cells ?
What is the Hayflick limit?
the finite number of times a normal human cell can divide before it enters a state of senescence, or stops dividing, which is around 40-60 times.
many stem cells do not have a Hayflick number
What are some functions of stem cells?
maintain the number of differentiated cells // replace dead and injured cells
Where do pluripotent stem cells originate ?
blastocyst / umbilical cord /
Where do totipotent stem cells originate ?
morula ( a solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum/ during an early stage of fertilisation)
What does embryonic stem cells refer to?
totipotency(zygote + morula) or pluripotency (blastocysts ) dependent on the stage of embryo development
What type of stem cells can be obtained from the umbilical cord ?
pluripotent and multipotent
What type of stem cells can be obtained from adults?
multipotent or unipotent e.g. haemopoietic can become any type of blood cells (from the same familu )
How can we obtain stem cells?
from embryos // using therapeutic cloning and genetic therapy // extracted from umbilical cord // taken from adults
What is a progenitor cell?
a biological cell that can differentiate into a specific cell type, similar to stem cells, but with a more limited capacity to differentiate and a limited ability to self-renew
What factors control renewal of stem cells?
molecular signs / integrins / growth factors/ number of divisions / rate of stem cell divisions
What are induced pluripotent stem cells?
stem cells obtained from skin or blood of an adult or child which resume their embryonic state conventing potency from uni or multi to pluripotency
What is the biological cause of leukemia?
disease whereby the haematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow produce too many white blood cells
What is a positive inotropic agent ?
medications that increase the force of muscle contraction of the heart, resulting in an increased cardiac output
What are some new drugs which have been introduced to reduce hypertension?
GLUANYLATE CYCLASE STIMULATORS (vasodilates ) // PROSTACYCLIN RECPETOR ANTAGONISTICe.g. epoprostenol and treprostinil(vasodilation)// ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR BLOCKER (prevents vasoconstriction)// RHO-KINASE INHIBITOR (inactivates MLC phosphatase(cauisng vascular smooth muscle contaction)// Enos COUPLERS (regulates vasculate tone through nitric oxide mainatince ) // POTASSIUM CHANNEL OPENER (smoth muscle relaxation)
What are some delivery methods of treatments ?
VIRAL -> gene therpahy // NON-VIRAL -> use of liposomes and naked DNA / salt-shock method
What can digoxin
may lead to cardiac arrhythmic through affecting impulse firing and increasing intracellular calcium // can be used to treat heart failure as it targets upstream pathways
What are modern drugs which can be used for type 2 diabetes ?
DPP-4 INHIBITOR (regulates blood sugar by reducing GLP-1 hormone breakdown ) // GLP-1 RECPETOR ANTAGONIST/reduces GLP-1 binding to the receptor )// SGLT2 INHIBITOR(removes excess glucose or sugar , reducing blood sugar levels in the kidney)
Compare the function of an agonist and antagonist?
AGONIST- > binds to a receptor enhancing its activity// ANTAGONIST-> bind to or prevents other molecules from binding to the receptor reducing its activity
