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A&P 2 > Special senses > Flashcards

Special senses Flashcards

1
Q

what are papillae

A

raised structures on tongue

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2
Q

4 types of papillae

A

filiform, fungiform, circumvallates, foliate

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3
Q

filiform location and characteristic

A

Anterior 2/3rds of tongue. no taste buds, just gives tongue friction

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4
Q

fungiform location and characteristic

A

Anterior 2/3rds of tongue. have taste buds

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5
Q

Circumvallates location and characteristic

A

V-shape dividing anterior 2/3rds and posterior 1/3rd. there are 7 to 14 of these, have taste buds

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6
Q

foliate location and characteristic

A

side of tongue. have tastebuds

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7
Q

3 types of cells making up taste buds

A

supporting cells (specialised epithelium)
gustatory receptor cells
basal cells

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8
Q

gustatory receptor cell characteristics

A

NOT neurons. have a hair that sticks out of the taste pore

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9
Q

gustatory basal cells

A

Base of taste buds have basal epithelial cells essentially stem cells. Will become gustatory receptor cells when prompted by chemicals or damage

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10
Q

5 tastes and their sources

A

i. Sweet (sugars, alcohol, amino acids)
ii. Sour (acids, H+)
iii. Salty (inorganic salts, NaCl—any positive and negative ion together)
iv. Bitter (bases, nicotine, caffeine, toxins/poisons)
v. Umami (delicious, glutamate)

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11
Q

what must be present for taste to work

A

solution (saliva)

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12
Q

how do gustatory receptor cells activate

A

i. Two of the gustatory receptor cell types activate directly through Na+ channels (salty) and H+ channels (sour)
ii. Sweet, bitter, umami utilizes G protein gustducin to turn on ion channels

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13
Q

gustatory innervation and pathways

A
  • Anterior 2/3rds of tongue: glossopharyngeal nerve to medulla -> thalamus -> cortex
  • Posterior 1/3rd: facial nerve -> medulla -> thalamus -> cortex
  • Taste buds on epiglottis: vagus nerve -> medulla -> thalamus -> cortex
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14
Q

where is the gustatory centre

A

insula

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15
Q

what two additional brain areas play a role in gustation

A

frontal cortex (quality discrimination) and hypothalamus (ANS control of rest/digest)

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16
Q

4 influences of taste

A

i. Smell makes up 70-80% of taste
ii. Thermoreceptors
iii. Mechanoreceptors (pressure, texture)
iv. Nociceptors—spicy

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17
Q

olfactory epithelium vs. resporatory epithelium

A
  • Respiratory epithelium is made up of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and covers our respiratory tract. Present in the nasal conchae and meatuses
  • Olfactory epithelium is found at the top of the nasal cavity. Present here are olfactory sensory cells (1st order neurons) with non motile cilia that bind to odorants. They are buried in mucus which acts like flypaper for odorants
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18
Q

olfactory basal cells

A

olfactory stem cells: become olfactory sensory neurons, replaced every 1-2 months. One of very few areas of nervous system with cell regeneration

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19
Q

olfactory glands

A

Bowman’s glands/olfactory glands manufactures mucus

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20
Q

how many smells do we smell and how

A

i. We can smell ≈10,000 different smells, way more than tastes
ii. We have 400-1,000 smell genes which make proteins (olfactory receptors). Each protein can bind to 2-3 types of odorants, and odorants can bind to 2-3 different proteins. The overlap combinations creates lots of different smells.

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21
Q

olfactory transduction

A

G proteins open up Na+ channels for stimulatory EPSP or open Ca+ channels which cause IPSP and causes adaptation

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22
Q

olfactory pathway

A

olfactory sensory cells (bipolar 1st order neurons) travel up through tiny holes in the cribriform plate of ethmoid bone, these holes are called olfactory foramina.
• Superior to foramina they synapse with second order neurons called mitral cells. The axons of mitral cells make up the olfactory cranial nerve.
• Processes from olfactory receptor cells and processes from mitral cells come together and form balls called glomeruli. Similar odorants are processed in the same glomerulus.
• Olfactory nerve bypasses the thalamus and goes to olfactory cortex, then to frontal cortex and hypothalamus and amygdala (limbic system)

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23
Q

another word for eyelid

A

palpebra

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24
Q

fissure

A

the opening between eyelids when open

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25
Q

commisures (canthus)

A

outer edges of eye lids

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26
Q

infected gland at bottom of eyelash

A

sty

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27
Q

chalazion

A

infected tarsal/meibomian gland

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28
Q

tarsal/meibomian gland

A

gland in eye lid

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29
Q

eye lid muscles

A
  • Levator palpebrae superioris controls upper eye lid

* Orbicularis oculi: goes around eye, causes squinting

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30
Q

conjuntiva

A

• The conjunctiva is a mucus membrane, starts on inside of eyelid, doubles over on itself and covers the sclera that is visible up to the base of the cornea

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31
Q

divisions of conjunctiva

A

palpebral conjunctiva: lines the eye lids
bulbar conjunctiva: on the visible anterior sclera
conjunctival sac: the dip between the inside of the eyelid and the surface of the eye

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32
Q

lacrimal gland function & location

A

produces tears, located superiolaterally to eye

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33
Q

tear drainage path

A

• Tears drain across eye to lacrimal sac in medial corner through lacrimal punctum (tiny holes), then down lacrimal canaliculus to nasolacrimal duct & sac, to inferior meatus of nasal cavity.

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34
Q

extrinsic eye muscles & innervation

A
  • 4 rectus muscles & 2 obliques
  • Oculomotor: superior, medial & inferior rectus + inferior oblique
  • Trochlear: superior oblique
  • Abducens: lateral rectus
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35
Q

3 layers of eyeball

A

fibrous tunic
vascular tunic
sensory tunic

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36
Q

2 parts of fibrous tunic

A

sclera and cornea

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37
Q

cornea cell types and function

A

o Cornea is covered by stratified epithelium for protection
o Inside of cornea is simple squamous epithelium with Na+ pumps to keep water content low. this area is innervated but avascular

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38
Q

sclera

A

white layer surrounding everything: extension of dura mater

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39
Q

3 parts of vascular tunic

A

choroid (pigment)
ciliary body
iris

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40
Q

choroid (pigment) function

A

absorbs excess light to avoid unnecessary activation of photoreceptors

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41
Q

ciliary body structures

A

made up of ciliary muscles and processes. Processes have extensions referred to as suspensory ligaments/zonules, arranged sphincter-like around the lens

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42
Q

iris muscles controlling pupil size

A

o Sphincter pupillae: decrease pupil size (parasympatheric)

o Dilator pupillae: increase size (sympathetic)

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43
Q

2 layers of sensory tunic

A

pigmented layer, neural layer

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44
Q

which sensory tunic layer has photo receptors

A

neural layer

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45
Q

rods and cones sensory characteristics

A

cones do sharp color (blue, green, red) and focus. not very sensitive light.
Rods are responsible for seeing things in dim light, not a lot of color or sharp images/borders, peripheral vision

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46
Q

fundus

A

posterior wall of eye ball

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47
Q

optic disk

A

blind spot: this is the place where the optic nerve leaves so no photoreceptors are present

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48
Q

Macula lutea (fovea)

A

The fovea contains only cones, the macula contains mostly cones, and from the edge of the macula toward the retina periphery, cone density declines gradually

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49
Q

segments of the eyeball

A

Anterior: anything in front of the lens
Posterior: anything behind the lens

50
Q

divisions of anterior segment

A

anterior and posterior chamber
Anything in front of lens but behind iris is posterior chamber
Anything in front of iris is anterior chamber

51
Q

aqueous humor, location production and drainage

A

in the anterior segment. • Produced as blood diffuses through the ciliary processes
• Drains through scleral venous sinus

52
Q

vitreous humor

A

gelatinous material in posterior segment which keep all the layers pushed up against the sclera

53
Q

cataracts

A

• Lens fibers are composed of proteins called crystallins. When these proteins are not lined up properly due to vitamin deficiencies, smoking, diabetes etc. you get cataracts which make the lens cloudy

54
Q

definition of wavelength

A

peak to peak distance

55
Q

refraction

A

ability to bend light

56
Q

diverging

A

light rays bending and moving away from each other

57
Q

converging

A

light rays bending and coming together

58
Q

where does refraction happen in the eye and how much

A
  • 2/3rds happen at cornea

* 1/3rd happens at lens

59
Q

focal points

A

the point where the light rays come together, should be on retina

60
Q

near vision accommodation

A

the light rays are diverging so the lens has to change shape to correct the focal point

61
Q

ciliary muscle function

A

Ciliary muscle relaxed = ligaments pull on and flatten lens. This sets the lens up for far vision, which means our eyes have to strain less for far than near vision

62
Q

convergence of eyeballs

A

When we look at distant objects, both eyes are directed either straight ahead or to one side to the same degree, but when we fixate on a close object, our eyes converge

63
Q

what happens to pupils at near vision

A

Constriction of pupils: lets in less light, so lens doesn’t have to work as hard when looking at things up close

64
Q

myopia

A

nearsighted. Focal point in front of retina. Concave lens corrects

65
Q

hyperopia

A

farsighted. Focal point behind retina. Convex lens corrects.

66
Q

two segments of photoreceptors and their characteristics

A
  • Outer segment: The outer segment is the receptive region of rods and cones, contains light sensors and dips into the pigmented layer of the retina. It has disks which are made up of visual pigments, aka photo pigments.
  • Inner segment: connects to the cell body which is continuous with an inner fiber which synapses with the bipolar cells.
67
Q

retinal

A

light absorbing molecule in outer segment of photoreceptors. changes shape when a photon is present

68
Q

how many visual pigments are there

A

4

69
Q

activation of photoreceptors (bleaching the pigment)

A

• When a photon hits the retinal of the visual pigment it changes shape and is no longer bound to opsin. This is called bleaching of the pigment. Cyclic GMP levels change depending on the presence of a photon

70
Q

photoreceptor process without a photon

A

o WITHOUT a photon, cGMP is elevated causing a slight depolarization from the opening of Na+ and Ca+ channels. This causes an inhibitory neurotransmitter to be released onto the bipolar cell, which in turn hyperpolarizes the bipolar cell so it does not release neurotransmitter onto the ganglion cell. Bipolar cell wants to fire EPSP all the time, but is inhibited by the inhibitory neurotransmitter by the photoreceptor, unless there is presence of a photon.

71
Q

photoreceptor process with a photon

A

o WITH a photon, cGMP decreases which stops Ca+ and Na+ entering the cell, preventing the release of inhibitory neurotransmitter onto bipolar cell. Lack of IPSP causes depolarization of the bipolar cell, which triggers neurotransmitter release onto ganglion cell, and AP to optic nerve.

72
Q

light and dark adaptation

A
  • Dark adaptation takes 15-30 minutes, allows you to see in very low light due to rods activating
  • Light adaptation: Going from low light to high light quickly causes rods to turn off and cones to overactivate. Resetting cones takes 5-10 minutes.
73
Q

visual pathway

A
  • Light that hits the medial part of the retina crosses over at the optic chiasma.
  • The entire left visual field is processed on the right side of the brain and vice versa, no matter which eye picks it up.
  • Impulses travel through the thalamus on their way to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
  • Some optic fibers also extend to the superior colliculi of the midbrain
74
Q

auricle

A

aka pinna. superior cartilaginous part of outer ear

75
Q

helix

A

folded over, outermost part of outer ear (outside auricle)

76
Q

Lobule

A

inferior part of outer ear (ear lobe)

77
Q

external auditory meatus

A

external ear canal, lined with skin and small hairs. seruminous glands produce ear wax

78
Q

barrier between external and middle ear

A

tympanic membrane (ear drum)

79
Q

3 ossicles in order

A

hammer / malleus
incus / anvil
stapes / stirrup

80
Q

tiny muscles of the middle ear

A

tensor tympani, attaches to hammer

stapedius, attaches to stapes

81
Q

function of tensor tympani and stapedius

A

if a noise is too loud these muscles contract to pull the ossicles away from the tympanic membrane

82
Q

antrum

A

connects the ear to the mastoid air cells via the epitympanic recess. ear infections can spread through this pathway

83
Q

oval window

A

membrane between middle and inner ear. magnifies frequency and amplitude to be able to move through fluid in inner ear

84
Q

round window

A

absorbs vibrations that have traveled through the cochlea so they don’t bounce back

85
Q

pharyngotympanic tube

A

pathway from middle ear to nasopharynx

86
Q

membranous labyrinth

A

inside the bony labyrinth, made up of the scala media. contains endolymph.

87
Q

bony labyrinth

A

surrounds the cochlea and contains the membranous labyrinth

88
Q

endolymph

A

resembles potassium rich plasma, present in membranous labyrinth/scala media

89
Q

perilymph

A

resembles CSF, present in bony labyrinth/scala vestibuli and tympani

90
Q

layers of the cochlea

A

scala vestibuli, media and tympani

91
Q

location and 2 parts of vestibule

A

just inside oval window, utricle and saccule

92
Q

stria vascularis

A

where endolymph comes from

93
Q

helicotrema

A

at the top of cochlea where scala vestibuli and scala tympani meet

94
Q

scala media aka

A

cochlear duct

95
Q

what is sound

A

alternate zones of high and low pressure air creates wavelengths

96
Q

frequency

A

wavelengths per second, measured in hertz

97
Q

pitch

A

determined by high/low frequency. high frequency = high pitch

98
Q

human hearing frequency range

A

20-20,000 hertz. we hear best 1500-4000 hertz

99
Q

amplitude

A

loudness–more energy. measured in decibels

100
Q

decibels-logarithmic scale

A

0= lowest audible sound
10dB= 10x more energy than 0
20dB=100x more than 0

101
Q

transmission of sound

A
  1. sound waves vibrate tympanic membrane which vibrates ossicles
  2. sound is magnified as it moves through oval window
  3. pressure waves move through perilymph fluid in scala vestibuli
  4. if sound is w/in hearing range it travels through scala vestibule until it finds an area on scala media that it resonates with. high frequency sounds resonate with short, stiff fibres near base of basilar membrane. low freq sounds resonate w long, floppy fibres at the apex.
  5. Sound vibrates the basilar membrane which shakes the inner hair cells and vibrates the sectorial membrane
  6. movement of inner hair cells in one direction depolarises cell which transmits sound
102
Q

spiral organ of corti

A

receptor organ for hearing, located in the scala media. strip of sensory epithelium made of hair cells which act as the sensory receptors of the inner ear

103
Q

tip links

A

tops of cilia on inner hair cells. like bottle tops tied to a rope. when rope move toward kinocilium, bottle tops open and allow K+ and Ca++ in, causing depolarisation and AP

104
Q

functions of outer hair cells

A

resets and stiffens tectorial membrane

105
Q

auditory pathway

A 
afferent cochlear nerve
spiral ganglion
medulla
midbrain (startle reflex)
auditory cortex
106
Q

tallest cilia in hair cell

A

kinocilium

107
Q

detects horizontal static movement

A

macula in utricle

108
Q

detects vertical static movement

A

macula in saccule

109
Q

otilithic membrane

A

membranes in maculae of the saccule and utricle that cilia of hair cells are stuck in (instead of tectorial in cochlea)

110
Q

otoliths

A

little “rocks” on top of otolithic membrane. when head/body moves, the rocks help move the membrane which causes bending of the hair cells, creating action potentials.

111
Q

picks up static movement

A

maculae of the utricle and saccule

112
Q

picks up dynamic movement

A

ampullae of the semicircular canals

113
Q

semicircular canals type of movement

A

respond to rotational movement

114
Q

posterior semicircular canal

A

senses tilt of head toward either shoulder

115
Q

superior semicircular canal

A

senses rotation from front to back nodding “yes”

116
Q

horizontal semicircular canal

A

senses left to right rotation, shaking “no”

117
Q

semicircular canal receptor names

A

cupula instead of tectorial/otolithic membrane

structure with hair cells is called crista ampullaris

118
Q

2 types of equilibrium

A

static, dynamic

119
Q

how does brain know what direction it’s moving

A

the endolymph moves in the same direction, but since there is an equilibrium system on both sides of the brain, it will depolarise on one side and hyper polarise on the other

120
Q

3 sources of input for body position

A

vestibular system, visual receptors, somatic receptors

121
Q

2 brain areas processing input for body position

A

cerebellum and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem

A&P 2 (8 decks)

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