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1
Q

Describe Darwins contribution to the theory of evolution.

A

the process evolution occurs: NATURAL SELECTION (The mechanism for evolution.)
1. populations have variations
2. some variations are favourable
3. more offspring are produced than survive
4. those that survive have the favourable traits
5. a population will change over time

eg. peppered moths

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2
Q

Define the term species

A

A group of living organisms that can exchange genes or breed together and produce fertile offspring

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3
Q

How speciation occurs

A

The process by which life forms change over time, sometimes giving rise to new species. The populations become reproductively isolated, resulting in new species as they are exposed to different selection pressures, overtime DNA mutations build up in the species and they can no longer resproduce.

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4
Q

What is meant by hybrid

A

Hybrids are the infertile offspring of genetically similar species (not the same). Eg. lions and tigers are genetically similar but separated both geographically and ecologically. - Tigon and Liger.

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5
Q

How do scientists identify if two animals belong to the same species

A

Scientists would breed the two animals together. If they produce fertile offspring then they would be classified as the same species, but if they produced infertile offspring then they are classified as different
species.

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6
Q

Define evolution

A

The gradual change in genetic material (DNA) of a population of organisms over a long period of time.

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7
Q

Charles Darwin theory of evolution vs Jean Baptiste Lamarke

A

Charles - Theory of natural selection
Jean - Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics.

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8
Q

Natural selection 6 principals

A
  1. variation already exists within a population
  2. a selection pressure acts on the population
  3. individuals with the favourable trait will survive and produce offspring passing on the genes for the favourable trait to the next generation
  4. the individual without the favourable trait struggles to reproduce their genes
  5. overtime the population will therefore change
  6. more individuals in the population of future generations will show/have the favourable trait.
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9
Q

Selection pressures

A

Factors that result in selection pressures include:
- Predation (introduced)
- Changes in climate
- Changes in environmental factors (food, water, etc)
- Disease
- Competition for food, space, reproductive resources.

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10
Q

How does variation occur in a population

A

DNA mutations, gene flow, sexual reproduction. The main source of new traits is mutations and occur in an individuals DNA. These traits may give the individual and advantage.

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11
Q

Isolating mechanisms preventing offspring.

A

Mechanical isolation - separated populations develop different reproductive parts and cannot reproduce.

Gamete isolation- different sperm and ova usually don’t form an zygote.

Behavioural isolation - in the same area but have different courtship rituals and may not understand each other.

Ecological isolation - species occupy different habitats and so will not encounter each other to mate.

Geographical isolation - separated by geography. Eg mountains, rivers.

Temporal isolation - species reproduce at different times of the day or seasons.

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12
Q

Define the term ‘survival of the fittest’.

A

In a population with a variation of features, those that are best suited to their environment are more
likely to survive and breed more successfully than their rivals.

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13
Q

What role does mutation play in natural selection?

A

Mutations produce different characteristics within individuals. Organisms that best suit them to their
particular environment have greater chances of survival and reproduction, which means they can pass this
favourable mutation on to future generations. Possible examples: Dark moths have a favourable mutation that
allows them to be camouflaged from predators during the industrial revolution.

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14
Q

Explain how fossil records provide evidence of evolution.

A

Fossil records show a progression for simple forms to more complex forms that is consistent with the
theory of evolution. Being able to work out how old a fossil is (dating) means that the order in which different
life forms appeared can be determined, therefore the evolution of these life forms can be deduced.

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15
Q

What type of evidence of evolution does the pentadactyl limb demonstrate? Explain.

A

Comparative anatomy. Animals that have the pentadactyl limb must have shared a common
ancestor, indicating divergent evolution.

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16
Q

Using an example, explain how vestigial structures are evidence of evolution.

A

Vestigial structures are organs that were once used by ancestors but have reduced in size/function
because they are not being selected for. They provide evidence of ancestral heritage in which these
structures performed other tasks, for example, the appendix in humans. Other examples include wisdom
teeth, pelvic bones in snakes and wings on the cassowary.

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17
Q

What is the difference between convergent and divergent evolution? Use examples in your answer.

A

Divergent evolution occurs when closely related species become more different over time due to
different environmental conditions and different selection pressures (eg. pentadactyl limb).
Whereas convergent evolution occurs when unrelated organisms evolve similar adaptations in
response to their similar environment (eg. bat wing and butterfly wing).

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18
Q

What is the difference between homologous and analogous structures?

A

Homologous structures are features that have a similar structure but different function. They are
evidence of divergent evolution. In comparison, analogous structures are features that have similar
functions, but are structurally different. They are evidence of convergent evolution.

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19
Q

The hominin skeleton

A

● Upright posture
● Bipedalism
● Centralised foramen magnum
● Larger brain case
● Flatter face
● Bowl-shaped and/or shorter pelvis

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20
Q

Features of the hominin skull. Describe how they differ from hominid skulls.

A

● Hominin skulls have a more centralised foramen magnum
● Hominin skulls have a flatter face
● Hominin skulls have a larger cranial capacity
● Hominin skulls have a more parabolic jaw (U-shaped jaw)
● Hominin skulls have less canine teeth

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21
Q

The only surviving hominin species

A

Homo sapiens.

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22
Q

The first hominin species to use stone
tools.

A

H. habilis

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23
Q

Where are hominins are thought to have originated from

A

Africa

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24
Q

What is a half life?

A

A half-life is the time taken for the concentration of a radioactive isotope to fall to half its original value.

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25
Radiometric dating
Estimation of the age of a volcanic rock using parent/daughter ratios of certain radioactive isotopes.
26
Relative age
The age of a rock compared to the ages of other rocks is the rock’s relative age.
27
The fossilisation process occurs over millions of years. Describe two steps and/or conditions that are required for fossilisation to occur.
Fossils require quick burial. Fossilisation also best occurs when it is hard body parts that are buried. OR lack of oxygen.
28
Artificial selection
Is when organisms are bred with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits. It is the opposite to natural selection.
29
Speciation
Formation of new species as one species splits or evolves is called speciation.
30
Pre-zygotic isolation mechanism
Prevention of mating or fertilisation
31
Post-zygotic isolation mechanism
prevention of embrio forming or surviving after fertilisation.
32
How fast does speciation occur?
Can be fast (100,000 year) or slow (300 million years). Fossil records indicate over 99% of species that have existed are now extinct.
33
Extinction
The complete disappearance of a species when the last of its individuals die off. - changes in environment - a lack of genetic diversity - a new species - disease, climate change, pollution, asteroid, lack of food, humans, invasive species.
34
Mass extinction
Large number of species become extinct. - sea level, temperature and rainfall changes - changes in level of uv radiation - volcanic activity -
35
Divergent evolution
Occurs when closely related species become more different over time due to selection pressures and different environmental pressures. Eg homologous structures (pentadactyl limb)
36
Convergent evolution
Occurs when unrelated organisms evolve similar adaptations in response to their similar environment. Eg analogous structures are features that have the same function.
37
Molecular biology
is the study of cellular molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
38
Define hominid
all modern and extinct great apes
39
Define hominin
Any species of early human that is more closely related to humans than chimpanzees, including modern humans.
40
What are fossils
the preserved body, impression or trace of a dead organism.
41
Evidence for evolution
Fossils are one source of evidence that supports the theory of evolution. Fossils can identify extinct species as well as changes to species over time.
42
Fossil records
Provide evidence that living things have evolved. Fossil record is limited and incomplete as fossilisation is a rare process.
43
Cast fossil
forms when a mold is filled with sediment.
44
Mold fossil
a fossilised, hollow impression of a plant or animal.
45
trace fossil
nests, eggs, tracks that have been fossilised.
46
Absolute dating
Scientists can work out the precise age of the fossil by using radio active dating techniques. An isotope is an element that has same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
47
Types of radiation
Alpha - two protons and two neutrons (lowest energy and can be stopped by paper) Beta - fast moving, high energy electron. (can be stopped by wood or aluminium foil) Gamma - high frequency wave can only be stopped by lead or concrete.
48
The order of evolution
1. Australopithecus afarensis, 2. Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens.
49
Who was the first to move out of Africa
H erectus
50
Who was the first to use stone tools
H Habilis
51
What is the difference between covalent and ionic bonding
Covalent bonding: occurs between non-metals. In order to have a full (stable) valence shell of electrons, they share pairs of electrons, forming covalent bonds. They cannot donate electrons to each other. Therefore to gain a full valence shell they must share electrons. Ionic bonds: Share electrons.
52
How do you know if a molecule is organic or inorganic
Organic compounds always have a carbon atom, while most of the inorganic compounds do not contain a carbon atom in them.
53
Define ‘fossil fuel’
Fossil fuels are fuels that have been obtained from plant and animal matter that has been buried and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years.
54
Why is carbon so important?
Carbon atoms can bond with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and others to form carbon or organic compounds. They can be the building blocks for organisms and the major source of their chemical energy. They are very strong and carbon to carbon bonds can be single, double or triple.
55
What are hydrocarbons?
When a compound contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, it is referred to as a hydrocarbon. They are obtained from crude oil and are a valuable energy source. The three groups of hydrocarbons are alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
56
What are the differences and similarities between alkanes, alkenes and alkynes?
Alkanes = C n H 2n + 2 Alkenes = C n H 2n Alkynes = C n H 2n - 2
57
Know what an alcohol and its hydroxyl group is.
Alcohols are organic compounds that have a hydrogen atom replaced by a hydroxyl group, which is the -OH group. Eg. methane becomes methanol.
58
Know what a carboxylic acid and its carboxyl group is.
Carboxylic acids have a functional group called a carboxyl group, which is -COOH. In a carboxyl group the carbon has a double bond to one oxygen atom, and a single bond to one second oxygen. All have the suffix -oic. They are weak acids and often give foods their sour taste.
59
Be able to identify the hydroxyl or carboxyl group on the structural formula of an alcohol or carboxylic acid.
Methanoic acid - HCOOH Ethanoic acid - CH3COOH Propanoic acid - C2H5COOH Butanoic acid - C3H7COOH Methanol - CH3OH Ethanol - C2H5OH
60
Describe a combustion reaction.
When fuel burns in plenty of air, it receives enough oxygen for complete combustion. The product of combustions are always carbon dioxide and water. The word equation is fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.
61
Describe the difference between carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Incomplete combustion is when there is a shortage of oxygen when a hydrocarbon fuel is burned. The products are carbon monoxide and water. fuel + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water.
62
What is carbon monoxide
CO is a colourless, odourless and very toxic gas that reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
63
Write the general word equation for a complete and an incomplete combustion reaction.
Complete: hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water Incomplete: hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water
64
What is an exothermic reaction? Give an example.
Combustion is an example of an exothermic reaction. This is when heat energy has been transferred to the surroundings. Or burning a candle.
65
What is an exothermic process? Give an example.
An exothermic process also released heat into the environment, however there is no new substance formed. For example freezing, some hand warmers.
66
What is the difference between a reaction and a process?
A reaction is a chemical change and can't be reversed. A process is a physical change and no new substance is formed.
67
What is the definition of a fuel?
A fuel is a substance that produces useful energy when it undergoes a chemical reaction.
68
What is a fossil fuel
Are fuels that have been obtained from plant and animals that have been buried and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years. Fossil fuels are NON-RENEWABLE
69
Briefly describe the process of coal, petroleum and natural gas formation.
Coal: After millions of years plants that were dead fell into swampy water prevented from rotting away. Over the years, mud piled up and under the pressure the plants and foliage became coal. Natural gas: Oil and natural gas are generally made from the decayed remains of sea creatures which died millions of years ago. Petroleum: Liquid hydrocarbons are present in certain layers of sedimentary rock and can be extracted from the rock as crude oil, then refined to produce fuels.
70
Fossil fuels are described as non-renewable resources. Using examples, explain the meaning of non-renewable resources and renewable resources.
A non renewable resource is a natural resource that is used up faster than it is made up in nature. For example; coal, oil and gas.
71
Name and give the chemical formulas of two greenhouse gases.
Methane (CH4) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
72
Be able to briefly describe the greenhouse effect.
Human activities such as burning fossil fuels (and deforestation) produce excess carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas. This leads to higher concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases absorb the radiation that is released from Earth and re-emit it back down to Earth. Therefore, the higher the concentration of greenhouse gases, the more heat is absorbed in the atmosphere and re-emitted back down to Earth. This is known as the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and is causing Earth’s temperature to rise unnaturally.
73
Explain the link between fossil fuel use and the enhanced greenhouse effect.
The more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the more radiation (heat) is absorbed. This is re-emitted back towards Earth, causing Earth’s temperature to increase.
74
Renewable resources
Renewable resources are natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time. Eg. Biodiesel from vegetable oils, bioethanol from plant material and biogas from farm waste.
75
Where does our energy come from?
Earth's main source of energy is from the sun.
76
How do animals get their energy?
As animals we cannot directly use solar energy, therefore we rely on plants' ability to convert light energy into chemical energy (photosynthesis)
77
How do plants get their energy?
During photosynthesis, plants trap light energy with their leaves
78
What are the two main stages of photosynthesis?
Light dependent stage: Light energy splits water to form oxygen and hydrogen Light independent stage: The hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to form glucose, a simple sugar made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
79
Where does photosynthesis occur?
On average, a plant leaf has tens of thousands of cells, and each contains 40-50 chloroplasts. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cells. These chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis to occur.
80
What parts of a plant cell are involved in photosynthesis?
Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata (microscopic pores in the leaves) Water enters through the roots and travels to the leaves through xylem.
81
Write the word equation for photosynthesis.
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen
82
Know the function of the mesophyll, xylem, phloem, guard cells and stomata.
Mesophyll- contains many chloroplasts, and therefore represents the main site of photosynthesis in plants. Xylem- to transport water upward from the roots to parts of the plants such as stems and leaves Phloem- moves food substances and nutrients that the plant has produced by photosynthesis Guard cells- they help to regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata. Stomata- allow for gas exchange to occur, mainly carbon dioxide to enter the plant to make food molecules such as glucose and for oxygen to be released by the plant
83
Write the correctly balanced formula equation for photosynthesis.
6CO2+6H2O→ (Light and chlorophyll)C6H12O6+6O2
84
What happens to the energy produced by photosynthesis in plants?
Glucose is made, it is used for growth and repair. Excess glucose is converted to other chemicals for storage in leaves, roots and stems. eg starch, cellulose.
85
Is energy absorbed or released in the photosynthesis reaction?
More energy is absorbed in photosynthesis than is released
86
What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs?
Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in their surroundings using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and rely on other organisms for their nutrition.
87
What is cellular respiration?
When consumers eat producers, the stored energy is mostly used. Eg. for growth, repair, movement In all living organisms, stored energy (glucose) must first be converted into usable energy. This process is called cellular respiration
88
What is the energy produced used for?
The energy produced is used for growth, repair and movement.
89
How are the equations for photosynthesis and respiration related?
the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis:
90
What is the word and balanced equation for respiration?
Light energy→ (photosynthesis) chemical energy → (cellular respiration) → Usable chemical energy (ATP)
91
How is the equation for respiration similar and different from the equation for photosynthesis?
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O
92
Be able to compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION - Uses Oxygen - Efficient – Makes 30 or 32 ATP molecules from each Glucose molecule - Occurs in Mitochondria - Produces Carbon dioxide and water as waste products ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION - No Oxygen - Not efficient – Only 2 ATP molecules per glucose - Occurs in Cytoplasm - Produces Lactic Acid as waste product (in animals)
93
Know the word equations for anaerobic respiration (fermentation) in animals and bacteria/fungi/yeast.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (animals) Glucose ➔ lactic acid + energy (ATP) ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (bacteria) Glucose ➔ ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy (ATP)
94
Know applications of anaerobic respiration in yeast
Fungi and yeast use glucose to produce energy too They break glucose down without oxygen to produce ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy This process is called fermentation
95
What does ATP stand for?
The chemical energy released from glucose molecules is called ATP ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate
96
What is ATP and what does it do?
ATP is the major source of energy for all cells ATP molecules transfer energy around the cell
97
The difference between breathing and cellular respiration?
Breathing involves inhale of oxygen from the atmosphere into the lungs and exhale of carbon dioxide from the lungs into the atmosphere; whereas cellular respiration involves breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water in living cells, releasing energy.
98
What are the differences between the roles of chloroplasts and mitochondria?
Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of the cell, breaking down fuel molecules and capturing energy in cellular respiration. Chloroplasts are found in plants and algae. They're responsible for capturing light energy to make sugars in photosynthesis.
99
What is the energy transformation that occurs in photosynthesis?
Light energy to chemical energy.
100
In what form does energy come out in respiration?
The energy released during respiration is stored in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
101
What happens to the temperature of the solution in an endothermic reaction?
When energy is absorbed in an endothermic reaction, the temperature decreases.
102
What is the difference between a process and a reaction?
A process is is a physical change that can be reversed for example melting ice. A reaction is a chemical change in a substance that cannot be reversed for example a fire burning.
103
Give two examples of endothermic reactions.
1. Photosynthesis 2. Ammonium chloride experiment
104
Give two examples of exothermic processes.
1. Burning a candle 2. Burning a fire
105
How would you test to see if a reaction is endothermic?
Measure the temperature of the surroundings. If the surroundings are cooler, then its endothermic.
106
What is an enzyme?
An enzyme biological catalysts that significantly speed up the rate of most chemical reactions that take place within cells.
107
What is activation energy in a reaction?
Activation energy is like a ‘hurdle’ that reactants need to get over to start a chemical reaction. If the hurdle is too big, the reaction won’t proceed. One way of lowering the activation energy is through the use of enzymes.
108
Explain how enzymes speed up the rate of a reaction (linking to activation energy).
they do this by lowering the activation energy of a reaction
109
Be able to use a labelled diagram to show how enzymes work. Be able to identify the active site, substrate and products.
Enzymes are very specific about which reactions they catalyse. Only molecules with exactly the right shape will bind to the enzyme and react. These are the substrate(s). The part of the enzyme to which the reactant binds is called the active site.
110
What is a common ending for the name of enzymes? Give three examples.
-ase Lipases: This group of enzymes help digest fats in the gut. Amylase: In the saliva, amylase helps change starches into sugars. Maltase: This also occurs in the saliva, and breaks the sugar maltose into glucose.
111
What is denaturation? What causes denaturation of enzymes?
If the temperature increases far beyond an enzyme’s optimum, the shape of the enzyme irreversibly changes. This affects the shape of the active site and means that the enzyme will no longer work. When this happens the enzyme is denatured.
112
Briefly summarise the effect of temperature (both high and low) on enzyme activity
At low temperatures, enzymes have low activity. As the temperature rises the rate of reaction increases. The activity peaks at the optimum temperature - the temperature at which an enzyme is maximally active. Beyond the optimum temperature the activity of the enzyme decreases. At extreme temperatures, the enzymes are denatured and activity ceases.
113
Briefly summarise the effect of pH (both high and low) on enzyme activity
Enzymes also have an optimal pH (may differ between enzymes) and moving outside this range decreases enzyme activity. Enzymes in different locations have different optimum pH values since their environmental conditions may be different.
114
What is the definition of energy?
The ability to do work.
115
List four different types of kinetic energy
Mechanical Thermal Sound, Electrical
116
What are the units for energy?
Kilojoules
117
State the Law of conservation of energy.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed
118
What is metabolism?
Is a group of chemical reactions or changes, that happen in the cells of living things.
119
Name the three main nutrients in food.
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins
120
What is specific heat capacity?
how much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius
121
Know how to use the specific heat capacity to calculate the energy transferred into water.
A simple method is to burn the food and use the energy released to heat a measured volume of water.
122
Know how to calculate the energy in food (using e = mcΔt)
m = mass of water (NOT the food) c = specific heat capacity of water 4.18 ΔT = change in temperature
123
Be able to define and identify the independent, dependent and controlled variables in an investigation
Independent - The thing you change (x-axis) Dependent - The thing you measure (y-axis) Controlled - the set up that does not contain the independent variable in order to make sure the experiment is fair.
124
Be able to define and apply the terms accuracy, precision and validity
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other. Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.
125
Understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative results
If there were a group of people in a room, qualitative data could describe how they feel, what they look like, what clothes they are wearing, or the motivations of why they're here. Whereas quantitative data about the same group may include the number of people in the group, their age, or the temperature in the room.
126
What is the difference between systematic and random errors in investigations?
Systematic errors: A fault in the system(process) consistent inaccurate results Avoided by: using appropriate equipment using calibrated equipment using equipment properly. Random errors: unpredictable variations in the measurements which result in a variation of readings. Avoided by: - large sample size (averaging the results and minimizes error) - variation in measurement readings (same person records result eg-same angle, same colour perception) - experimenter fatigue or carelessness (not mistakes)
127
Photosynthesis
is the process by which plant cells convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy, so as to create energy-rich carbohydrate molecules like glucose.
128
Cellular respiration
is the process of breaking down food molecules to obtain energy and store it in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
129
Autorophs
Synthesises organic molecules
130
Hetorophs
Ingests organic materials
131
How to lower the activation energy
Using enzymes
132
Types of potential energy
Chemical Gravitational Nuclear Elastic

sem 2 (5 decks)

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