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MCAT > Sociology > Flashcards

Sociology Flashcards

1
Q

society

A

group of people who share a culture + live/interact with each other within a definable area

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2
Q

sociology

A

study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live

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3
Q

institution

A

structure that meets the needs of society

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4
Q

social facts

A
  • aspects of social life that shape the behaviour of individuals
  • exist external to an individual + constrain the individual
  • ex. norms, values, beliefs, etc.
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5
Q

collective conscience

A

how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideals, and moral attitudes
- related to functionalism

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6
Q

manifest functions

A

intended (+ official) consequences of an institution

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7
Q

latent functions

A

consequences of an institution that are not officially sought or sanctioned

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8
Q

social dysfunction

A

a process with undesirable consequences that may reduce the stability of society

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9
Q

solidarity

A

cohesion in society - feeling that one is part of the whole

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10
Q

mechanical solidarity

A

people are bound together by collective consciousness – similarities!
• seen in pre-modern societies

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11
Q

organic solidarity

A

people are bound together by interdependence – very different people rely on each other
• seen in modern societies

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12
Q

hegemony

A

coerced acceptance of values, expectations, and conditions determined by capitalists
- justifies current social order as necessary + natural + beneficial to everyone

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13
Q

class consciousness

A

exploited workers’ awareness of the reasons for their oppression

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14
Q

Protestant/Puritan work ethic

A
  • reason for the prevalence of capitalism
  • lauds morality of hard work for the sake of Godliness
  • proposed by Weber
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15
Q

rationalization

A

increasing concern with efficiency

- proposed by Weber

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16
Q

traditional authority

A

leaders relied on divinity, tradition, or customs to justify their power

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17
Q

charismatic authority

A

heroic individual could rise to power with magnetic personality

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18
Q

bureaucratic authority

A

individuals achieve power by knowledge

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19
Q

social construct

A

concept everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value

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20
Q

weak social constructionism

A

social constructs are dependent on brute facts: most basic + fundamental facts that cannot be explained

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21
Q

strong social constructionism

A

whole of reality is dependent on language + social habits – there are no brute facts

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22
Q

institutional facts

A

created by social conventions + do rely on other facts

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23
Q

typification

A

quick + routine classification of objects + actions + structuring our own actions in response

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24
Q

stocks of knowledge

A

have developed this knowledge that we use to quickly make sense of + respond to our environment

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25
Q

3 main tenets of symbolic interactionism

A

(1) humans ascribe meaning to things + act based on the subjective meaning they have assigned
(2) different people can assign different meanings to the same symbol
(3) meanings are not permanent

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26
Q

social play

A

characterized by spontaneity + freedom, with minimal rules + stakes

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27
Q

social games

A

much stricter set of rules + greater stakes

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28
Q

3 stages of learning to understand how others see us

A

(1) preparatory
(2) play
(3) game

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29
Q

generalized other

A

the rest of society

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30
Q

Thomas theorem

A

theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation

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31
Q

dramaturgical approach

A
  • views people as performers + the everyday world as a stage

- people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate to those they interact with

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32
Q

intersectionality

A

various human aspects subject to societal oppression (class, race, gender, etc.) do not exist isolated + separated from each other - have complex relationships

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33
Q

2 assumptions of utilitarianism

A

(1) humans are rational

(2) humans attempt to maximize benefits in every interaction

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34
Q

social institutions

A

complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behaviour of people

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35
Q

5 institutions

A

(1) family
(2) education
(3) religion
(4) healthcare
(5) government + economy

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36
Q

functions of the family

A

(1) reproduction + monitoring of sexual behaviour
(2) affection + companionship
(3) protection
(4) socialization
(5) social status

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37
Q

exogamy

A

marrying outside of a particular group (i.e. not marrying close relatives)

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38
Q

endogamy

A

marrying within a particular group

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39
Q

kin

A
  • group of people we consider ourselves related to
  • do not have to live together
  • cultural (not biological) group
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40
Q

categories of child abuse

A

(1) neglect
(2) physical abuse
(3) emotional abuse
(4) sexual abuse

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41
Q

hidden curriculum

A

unofficial + unintended lessons students learn in school

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42
Q

teacher expectancy theory

A
  • teachers quickly form expectations of individual students + act towards the student with these expectations in mind
  • student accepts teacher’s expectations as reasonable → student performs in accordance with the expectations
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43
Q

educational segregation

A
  • schools in higher-income areas tend to have better quality resources, smaller class sizes, better teachers, etc.
  • correlations between race and income → “unofficial” segregation
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44
Q

educational stratification

A

correlation between education, income, and social class

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45
Q

ecclesia

A
  • dominant religious organization that includes most members of society
  • recognized as the official or national religion + tolerates no other religions
  • integrated into political institutions
  • born into the social institution
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46
Q

church

A
  • religious organization well-integrated into larger society
  • membership by birth, but can join
  • concerned with both sacred + ordinary aspects of life
  • well-defined rules
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47
Q

sect

A
  • religious organization distinct from larger society
  • usually formed when a group breaks off from a larger religious institution
  • membership by birth or conversion
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48
Q

cult/new religious movement

A
  • religious organization far outside societies norms

- often involves a very different lifestyle

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49
Q

secularization

A
  • process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies
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50
Q

fundamentalism

A

strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs + practices + strict adherence to basic religious doctrines

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51
Q

Christianity

A
  • largest single faith in the world (30%)
  • monotheistic
  • involves belief in prophets, afterlife, judgement day
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52
Q

Islam

A
  • 20-25%
  • monotheistic
  • involves belief in prophets, afterlife, judgement day
  • religion dictates law in Muslim countries
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53
Q

Hinduism

A
  • 14%
  • polytheistic
  • involves belief reincarnation
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54
Q

Judaism

A
  • 0.22%
  • monotheistic
  • historical basis for Christianity + Islam
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55
Q

religiosity

A

extent of influence of religion in a person’s life

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56
Q

legal-rational authority

A

legal rules + regulations are stipulated in a document (like the Constitution)

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57
Q

aristarchic government

A
  • categorized based on distribution of power
  • controlled by a small group selected based on specific qualifications
  • public is not involved in political decisions
  • includes aristocracy + meritocracy
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58
Q

autocratic government

A
  • categorized based on distribution of power
  • controlled by a single person or small group with absolute decision-making power
  • includes dictatorships + fascist governments
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59
Q

monarchic government

A
  • categorized based on distribution of power

- controlled by a single person or a small group who inherited their leadership role

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60
Q

absolute monarchy

A
  • monarch has absolute power
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61
Q

constitutional monarchy

A
  • monarch is the head of the executive branch of government + works in conjunction with the rest of Parliament
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62
Q

authoritarian government

A
  • categorized based on how leadership is elected
  • unelected leaders - public has no control over representation
  • includes totalitarianism: unelected leaders regulate both public + private life
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63
Q

democratic government

A
  • categorized based on how leadership is elected
  • elected leaders - public has some degree of political decision-making power
  • direct democracy: direct public participation in decisions
  • representative democracy: indirect public participation through the election of representatives
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64
Q

oligarchic government

A
  • categorized based on how leadership is elected
  • leaders may or may not be elected
  • public has little influence in directing decisions + social change
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65
Q

economics

A

concerned with production, distribution, and consumption of resources

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66
Q

command (planned) economy

A
  • economic decisions are based on a plan of production

- means of production are state-owned

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67
Q

market economy

A
  • economic decisions are based on supply + demand

- means of production are often private

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68
Q

mixed economy

A
  • blend elements of command + market economies with both public + private ownership
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69
Q

traditional economy

A
  • considers social customs in economic decisions

- most common in rural areas

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70
Q

capitalism

A
  • economic system in which resources + production are mainly privately owned
  • goods + services produced for a profit
  • driving force: pursuit of personal profit
  • benefits consumer by creating competition → higher quality + lower prices
  • emphasizes personal freedom
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71
Q

socialism

A
  • economic system where resources + production are collectively owned
  • production designed to satisfy human needs - products for direct use instead of for profit
  • private property is limited
  • economy is centrally controlled
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72
Q

communism

A
  • specific type of socialism where there is common ownership of the means of production
  • absence of currencies, classes, states
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73
Q

welfare capitalism

A
  • most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs
  • i.e. Canada (universal healthcare but otherwise free market)
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74
Q

state capitalism

A
  • companies are privately run but work closely with the government in forming laws + regulations
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75
Q

profession

A

highly esteemed white-collar occupation that requires a great deal of education

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76
Q

primary care

A

care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care, disease management, or community-based care

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77
Q

secondary care

A

acute care (emergency department) + specialty care (usually by referral)

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78
Q

tertiary care

A

very specialized form of health care based on consultations with specialist care providers

  • often occurs in hospitals or care facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions
  • i.e. cancer centre, burn centre, palliative care
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79
Q

medical model of disease

A
  • emphasizes medical + physical factors as being the cause of all illness
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80
Q

medicalization

A
  • process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis + treatment
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81
Q

social model of disease

A
  • emphasizes the effect one’s social class, employment status, neighbourhood, exposure to environmental toxins, etc. can have on one’s health
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82
Q

food desert

A
  • area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores
  • makes people more likely to eat high-calorie foods with low nutritional value
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83
Q

sick role

A
  • society’s response to illness
  • concept developed by Parsons
  • when a person is sick, they are not able to be a contributing member of society
  • being ill is a type of deviance

rights

(1) exemption from normal social role responsibilities
(2) are not blamed for being ill

expectations

(1) must want to get better
(2) must attempt to get better (seek medical care)

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84
Q

illness experience

A
  • patient’s subjective experience of illness
  • may lead to a change in a person’s self identity
  • studies how a chronic illness is given meaning + how it affects one’s daily life
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85
Q

culture

A

shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices a social group shares

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86
Q

symbolic culture

A
  • symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture
  • convey agreed-upon meaning + can communicate the values + norms of the culture
  • include rituals, gestures, signs, etc.
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87
Q

material culture

A

involves physical objects or artifacts (including clothing, hairstyles, food, home design, etc.)

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88
Q

non-material culture

A

social thoughts + ideas

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89
Q

popular culture

A

features of culture that appeal to the masses + are communicated through mass media

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90
Q

high culture

A

features often limited to the consumption of the elite (i.e. ballet or opera)

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91
Q

cultural universals

A
  • patterns or traits common to all people

- pertain to survival + basic needs or experiences common to everyone (i.e. birth + death)

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92
Q

values

A

culture’s standard for evaluating right and wrong

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93
Q

beliefs

A

culture’s standard for evaluating good or bad

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94
Q

norms

A

visible + invisible rules of social conduct within a society

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95
Q

sociobiology

A

study of how biology + evolution have affected human social behaviour
- suggests that social behaviours persist over generations because they are adaptive

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96
Q

cultural diffusion

A

transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another

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97
Q

cultural competence

A

effective interactions between people from different cultures

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98
Q

cultural transmission

A

process through which information is spread across generations - i.e. the mechanism of learning

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99
Q

cultural lag

A
  • material culture changes much faster than non-material culture
  • non-material culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations → social problems
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100
Q

transition shock

A

occurs when an individual experiences a change that necessitates a period of adjustment

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101
Q

culture shock

A

occurs when an individual is overwhelmed + disoriented as a result of sudden exposure to a completely different culture, as when travelling

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102
Q

reverse culture shock

A

occurs when an individual returns to their home country

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103
Q

population

A

collection of people in a defined geographical area

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104
Q

population growth rate

A

rate of population change in a specified time period, reported as a % of the initial pop.

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105
Q

carrying capacity

A

total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources + without significant relevant effects in a given area

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106
Q

population projections

A

estimates of future populations based on mathematical extrapolations of previous data

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107
Q

crude birth rate

A

of births/1000 people in a population

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108
Q

crude death rate

A

of deaths/1000 people in a population

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109
Q

rate of population change

A

crude birth rate - crude death rate

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110
Q

general fertility rate

A

annual # of births/1000 women in the population

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111
Q

total fertility rate

A

total # of births/single woman, assuming she lives until the end of her reproductive years + experiences the current age-specific fertility rates

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112
Q

replacement fertility

A

fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced

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113
Q

sub-replacement fertility

A

birth rate < death rate → population size will decrease

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114
Q

difference between mortality + morbidity

A
  • mortality: death rate in a population

- morbidity: nature + extent of disease in a population

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115
Q

prevalence rate (of disease)

A

of individuals experiencing the disease

116
Q

incidence rate (of disease)

A

of new cases of the disease

117
Q

case fatality rate

A

measures deaths as a result of a set diagnosis or procedure

118
Q

infant mortality rate

A

annual # of deaths/1000 infants under 1 years of age

119
Q

life expectancy

A

of years an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

120
Q

migration

A

permanent geographical movement of individuals

121
Q

nomadism

A

traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources for sustenance

122
Q

external migration

A
  • international migration

- usually economic + political motivations

123
Q

internal migration

A
  • migration to another region of the same country

- usually economic motivation

124
Q

voluntary migration

A

motivated by internal factors

125
Q

involuntary migration

A
  • forced migration

- result of external factors that pose a threat to the individual

126
Q

settler

A

those who migrate to an unsettled area

127
Q

refugee

A

those who migrate to a settled area as a result of displacement

128
Q

colonization

A

migration to settled areas where dominance is exerted over the foreign state

129
Q

reverse migration

A

return of individuals to their former home

130
Q

push factors

A

features of a region/country that are unattractive and push people to leave

131
Q

social geography

A

spatial distribution of individuals + social groups

132
Q

urbanization

A

growth of urban areas (as people move from rural areas to cities)

133
Q

industrialization

A

transition of a society from agrarian to industrial

134
Q

rural flight

A

migration from rural to urban areas

135
Q

suburbanization

A

population growth on the fringes of urban areas

- suburb: residential satellite community on the peripheral region of a major urban centre

136
Q

exurb

A

lies farther away from the city than a suburb + is usually more prosperous

137
Q

rural rebound

A

people get sick of living in the city and move back to (usually scenic) rural areas

138
Q

white flight

A

migration of white people away from the city to more racially homogenous suburbs

139
Q

urban sprawl

A

unrestricted growth of housing, commerical development, and roads of large expanses of land
- migration to low density areas just outside the city

140
Q

urban blight

A

areas of large cities degrade as a result of urban decline

  • people living in blighted areas have less access to social amenities + opportunities
  • higher crime rates
141
Q

gentrification

A
  • form of urban renewal = renovation of urban areas
  • often involves the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure
  • benefits: greater tax base for local government
  • cons: displacement of original lower-income residents
142
Q

demographic transition

A

transition from higher to lower birth + death rates as a result of the transition from a pre-industrial to industrial framework

143
Q

Malthusianism

A
  • the possible rate of population growth > possible rate of resource availability increase
144
Q

2 types of checks on population growth

A
  • positive checks: increase death rate

- preventative checks: decrease birth rate

145
Q

Malthusian Catastrophe

A
  • means of sustenance are not enough to support the population
146
Q

demography

A

study of human population dynamics, including size, distribution, structure, and changes over time

147
Q

Great Migration

A

migration of black people from the rural south to the urban north after the abolition of slavery

148
Q

New Great Migration

A

migration of black people from the north to the south as racial relations improved

149
Q

dominant group

A
  • group with the most social power

- have the power to assign the label “minority”

150
Q

minorities

A

demographic groups that receive differential treatment due to their shared characteristics

151
Q

age cohort

A

statistical cohort in which a group of subjects share the same age (or are in the same general age group)

152
Q

population aging

A

disproportionate amount of older people in the population

153
Q

dependency ratio

A 
# of people < 14 years old + # of people > 65 (not in the workforce) → compares this # to the # of people age 15 - 64
- higher ratio → more dependent
154
Q

life course theory

A

aging is social, psychological, and biological process that continues throughout life

155
Q

age stratification theory

A

age is a way of regulating the behaviour of a generation

156
Q

activity theory

A

certain activities and roles are lost due to old age → these interactions must be replaced so older adults can maintain morale + well-being

157
Q

disengagement theory

A

older adults + society separate → become more self-absorbed as they age
- separation allows for self-reflection

158
Q

continuity theory

A

suggests that people try to maintain a same basic structure for their lives over time
- as they age, make decisions that preserve that basic structure + use it to adapt to the external changes of society

159
Q

gender roles

A

social + behavioural expectations for men + women

160
Q

gender expression

A

interal manifestation of gender roles

161
Q

gender conditioning

A

socialization of gender roles

162
Q

gender schema theory

A
  • suggests that children form a gender schema at a very early age by observing individuals in their environment
  • studies the socialization of gender beliefs in society
163
Q

American Dream

A

ideological construct that offers individuals the opportunity for success, happiness, and prosperity if they just work hard

164
Q

immigration controls

A

formal policies that define + regulate who has the right to settle in an area

165
Q

race

A

description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics that manifest in physical differences (often biological traits or genetic differences)

166
Q

ethnicity

A

cultural (not biological) division that differs from nationality

167
Q

ethnogenesis

A

social process resulting in the creation of separate ethnicities

168
Q

ethnicity

A
  • cultural (not biological) division that differs from nationality
  • defined by shared language, religion, history, etc.
169
Q

institutional discrimination

A
  • intentional unjust treatment of a particular group by societal institutions
170
Q

individual discrimination

A
  • unjust treatment of a particular group by individuals
171
Q

structural discrimination

A
  • similar to institutional discrimination
  • however, structural discrimination occurs when individuals who run the institutions in question do not intend to treat any group differently or unjustly, but inadvertently do so through their established practices
172
Q

difference b/w self-concept + self-consciousness

A
  • self-concept: sum of an individual’s knowledge + understanding of themselves
  • self-consciousness: awareness of oneself
173
Q

personal identity

A
  • one’s own sense of personal attributes

- attributes that define you as unique from other people in your in-groups

174
Q

social identity

A
  • social definitions of who you are
  • attributes that define you in terms of your shared similarities with members of certain social categories (i.e. black, female, gay)
175
Q

self-verification theory

A
  • people wants others to see them the way they see themselves
176
Q

ADRESSING framework

A 
A: age
D: disability status
R: religion
E: ethnicity/race
S: sexual orientation
S: socioeconomic class
I: indigenous background
N: nationality
G: gender
177
Q

incongruity

A
  • described by Carl Rogers

- when the real self falls short of the ideal self

178
Q

self-efficacy

A
  • belief in one’s own competence + ability to successfully do things
179
Q

locus of control

A
  • internal: believe you have the power to influence outcomes through your own actions
  • external: believe outcomes are controlled by outside forces
180
Q

self-esteem

A

your overall evaluation of your self-worth

181
Q

looking glass self

A
  • proposed by Charles Cooley
  • idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others
    (1) imagine how we appear to others
    (2) wonder how they evaluate us
    (3) revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perspectives of how others see us)
182
Q

social behaviourism

A

mind + self emerge through process of communicating with others
- proposed by George Herbert Mead

183
Q

socialization

A

process through which people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs of their culture

184
Q

norms

A

rules + expectations for behaviour of members of society

185
Q

sanction

A

rewards/punishments for normative/deviant behaviour

186
Q

formal norms

A

written down - precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who break them

187
Q

informal norms

A

less precise + carry no specific punishment

188
Q

mores

A

norms that are highly important for the benefit of society + are strictly enforced

189
Q

folkways

A

norms that are less important than mores but shape everyday behaviour

190
Q

taboo

A
  • behaviours that customs forbid
  • often involve a moral or religious component to the taboo
  • social construct
191
Q

anomie

A
  • lack of social cohesion + order resulting from a lack of clear ethical or social standards of behaviour (norms)
  • proposed by Emile Durkheim
  • occurs when individuals feel disconnected from others + their community
  • more common in individualistic cultures
192
Q

deviance

A

behaviour that violates social norms

193
Q

differential association theory

A
  • explanation of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland
  • individuals learn deviant behaviours + motives + values that rationalize them
  • learn from their close personal groups (i.e. business associates or a gang)
194
Q

labeling theory

A
  • explanation of deviance proposed by Howard Becker
  • behaviour is labeled deviant by society - nothing inherently deviant in the person’s actions
  • deviance is contextual
  • may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies
  • primary deviance – no big consequences; reaction to deviant behavior is very mild
  • secondary deviance – more serious consequences; characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior
195
Q

structural strain theory

A
  • explanation of deviance proposed by Robert Merton
  • anomie results from a mismatch between common social goals + accepted means to achieve them
  • if a person can’t achieve desirable goals through acceptable means, they resort to deviant means
196
Q

collective behaviour

A
  • large group of people behave in ways that violate societal norms
  • time-limited + involves short social interactions
197
Q

crowd

A
  • (usually emotional) group that shares a purpose
  • classified based on purpose:
  • acting crowd: gathers to cause change
  • expressive crowd: gathers to express an emotion
  • planned crowd: gathers for a specific planned event
  • casual crowd: emerges spontaneously + includes people who are not really interacting
198
Q

mob

A

crowd in which emotion is high + behaviour is directed towards a specific + violent cause

199
Q

public

A
  • group of individuals sharing ideas + discussing a specific issue
  • begins when discussion begins + ends when discussion ends
200
Q

mass

A
  • group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media
  • do not have to be in close proximity, but share common interests
201
Q

social movement

A
  • collective behaviour with the intention of fostering social change
  • active movement: promote social change
  • expressive movement: promotes individual change
202
Q

mass hysteria

A

collective delusion of some threat that escalates rapidly

203
Q

moral panic

A

panic as a result of perceived threat to social order (i.e. Salem Witch trials)

204
Q

fad

A

something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, remains popular for a brief period of time, and rapidly declines in popularity
- different from trend: longer-lived + may lead to permanent social change

205
Q

riot

A
  • disorganized + chaotic collective behaviour in response to dissatisfaction with social conditions
206
Q

assimilation

A

process in which an individual gives up aspects of the own culture + adopts the dominant culture

207
Q

multiculturalism

A
  • aka pluralism
  • endorses equal standing for all cultures - i.e. Canada’s mosaic
  • increases diversity BUT encourages segregation
208
Q

subculture

A

segment of society with distinct patterns of traditions + values that differ from those of larger society

209
Q

factors determining dispositional vs. situational attribution

A

(1) consensus: high consensus (everyone behaving the same way) → external attribution
(2) distinctiveness: high distinctiveness (only behaving like this in the specific situation) → external attribution
(3) consistency: high consistency (always behave like this) → internal attribution

210
Q

actor-observer bias

A
  • attribute others’ actions to their personality, but yours to the situation
211
Q

self-serving bias

A
  • internal attribution for your successes

- external attribution for your failures

212
Q

optimism bias

A

“bad things happen to other people but not to me!”

213
Q

just world phenomenon

A

belief that the world is fair + people get what they deserve

214
Q

hindsight phenomenon

A

tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred

215
Q

halo effect

A

tendency to believe that people are either inherently good or bad

216
Q

physical attractiveness stereotype

A
  • specific form of halo effect

- tendency to believe that attractive people have “better” personalities

217
Q

false consensus

A

occurs when we assume everyone else agrees with us (even when they do not)

218
Q

projection bias

A

occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do - even when unfounded

219
Q

social perception vs. social cognition

A
  • social perception: initial info we process about other people to try and understand their mindsets + intentions
  • social cognition: ability of the brain to store + process info regarding social perception
220
Q

stereotypes

A

oversimplified ideas about a group of people

221
Q

prejudice

A

thoughts, feelings, and attitudes you hold about a group, not based on personal experience

222
Q

discrimination

A

acting towards someone in a certain way based on their group membership (i.e. acting on prejudice)

223
Q

economic interdependence

A

division of labour on a global scale

224
Q

relative deprivation

A

lack of resources to sustain diet, lifestyle, activities, and social experiences seen as appropriate for an individual in a certain social position/society

225
Q

social stratification

A
  • the way people are categorized in society

- defines, reinforces, and perpetuates differences + inequalities

226
Q

caste system

A
  • closed stratification

- born into a category + cannot change it

227
Q

class system

A
  • open stratification
  • defined by social variables + individual initiative
  • upward mobility is limited
228
Q

socioeconomic status (SES)

A
  • defined in terms of power (ability to influence people), property (sum of possessions + income), and prestige (reputation)
229
Q

theories of why social movements form

A

(1) mass society theory: only form for people seeking refuge from main society
(2) resource mobilization theory: focuses on the resources needed to start a social movement (i.e. communication methods, money, charismatic leader)
(3) relative deprivation theory: social movements begin when a group of people are deprived of things the rest of society is able to enjoy
(4) rational choice theory

230
Q

privilege

A

set of advantages only available to a certain group

- influences power + prestige

231
Q

social reproduction

A
  • social structures transmit inequality from one generation to the next
  • financial capital is used to gain social + cultural capital → cultural + social capital contribute to social reproduction
  • social capital: networks of contacts
  • cultural capital: non-financial social assets transmitted across generations (knowledge, education, skills)
232
Q

absolute poverty

A

inability to obtain a bare minimum of basic necessities

233
Q

marginal poverty

A

due to a lack of stable employment

234
Q

structural poverty

A

due to underlying + pervasive effects of society’s institutions

235
Q

illusory correlation

A

correlation created between a group of people + a characteristic based on unique cases (i.e. all black people are good at basketball)

236
Q

stereotype threat

A

self-fulfilling fear that you will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
- i.e. stereotype that girls are bad drivers - when primed with that stereotype, girls perform worse on driving tests

237
Q

group

A

collection of people who regularly interact + identify with each other, sharing norms, values, and expectations

238
Q

primary group

A
  • small long-term group of people with whom an individual regularly interacts with in person
  • intimate - interacts with them in an emotional way
239
Q

secondary group

A
  • larger than primary group
  • meets/interacts for a specific purpose + for a shorter amount of time
  • serve instrumental functions: meeting pragmatic needs
240
Q

social identity theory

A
  • we categorize people as members of our in-groups or out-groups
  • identify with in-groups; notice differences from out-groups
241
Q

reference group

A

group of people you compare yourself to

242
Q

dyad

A
  • group of 2
  • intimate, intense interaction
  • requires active participation from both members to be stable
243
Q

triad

A
  • group of 3
  • three relationships
  • can be more stable (two people involved in conflict, one acts as mediator) or less stable (two against one conflict)
244
Q

category

A

people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together (+ do not need to interact)

245
Q

bureaucracy

A
  • administrative body + the processes it uses to complete its tasks
  • 5 characteristics:
    (1) hierarchical structure
    (2) advancement based on technical skill (impersonal)
    (3) workers are responsible for highly specialized tasks
    (4) workers follow set produces to ensure uniformity + efficiency
    (5) meant to cover a fixed area of activity
246
Q

social facilitation effect

A
  • presence of other people improves your performance of simple + well-practiced tasks
  • arousal → dominant response
247
Q

deindividuation

A
  • loss of a sense of identity + responsibility in favour of identifying with a group or mob
  • factors contributing to deindividuation:
    (1) anonymity
    (2) low arousal → frenzy (high arousal)
    (3) large group
248
Q

bystander effect

A
  • person is less likely to help if there are more people around
  • creates a diffusion of responsibility - no single person in the group has a responsibility to help
249
Q

social loafing

A

tendency for people to exert less effort in a group than individually

250
Q

group polarization

A

entire group tends to more extreme versions of the views they shared before discussing

251
Q

glass ceiling

A

invisible barrier that keeps a minority demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy

252
Q

2 reasons for group polarization

A

(1) informational influence: look to group for guidance when unsure; most common ideas presented by group support the dominant viewpoint
(2) normative influence: tend to agree with group (+ present views stronger than you normally would) to fit in

253
Q

groupthink

A
  • poor decision-making as a result of pressure to conform within a group
  • strong pressure to not provide dissenting opinions (illusion of unanimity)
  • high degree of cohesion in the group
  • mindguarding: someone prevents dissenting opinions from reaching the group
  • overconfidence in the group’s abilities
  • failure to consider alternatives
254
Q

conformity

A

adjusting thinking or behaviour based on the thinking or behaviour of others

255
Q

compliance

A
  • motivated by desire to seek reward or avoid punishment

- as soon as reward/punishment is removed, compliance is extinguished

256
Q

identification

A

motivated by the desire to be like someone else

- maintained as long as you have a good relationship with that person/group

257
Q

internalization

A

motivated by values + beliefs integrated in one’s own value system
- most enduring motivation of the three (compliance, identification, internalization)

258
Q

factors influencing conformity

A

(1) group size: larger group → more conformity
(2) cohesion
(3) no prior commitment: once people make a public commitment, they stick with it
(4) accountability: if accountable (i.e. public vote) → greater conformity
(5) unanimity: if one person disagrees → others more likely to voice their true opinions
(6) status: higher status → greater influence on opinions

259
Q

impression management (self-presentation)

A

process by which people attempt to manage their own image by influencing others’ perceptions of them

260
Q

self-handicapping

A

a person creates obstacles for themselves to avoid self-blame for poor performance

261
Q

status

A

a socially defined position in society

262
Q

master status

A

dominant status that determines the individual’s general position in society

263
Q

ascribed status

A

status assigned to a person by society (i.e. race, gender)

264
Q

achieved status

A

attributed to an individual as a result of their own efforts

265
Q

social roles

A

expectations for a person of a given social status

266
Q

role conflict

A

conflicting expectations of two different statuses

267
Q

role strain

A

conflict between different expectations for the same status

268
Q

role exit

A

process of leaving a role that is closely tied to your self-identity

269
Q

organization

A

large, impersonal group that comes together to pursue particular activities + goals

270
Q

normative organization

A

membership based on morally relevant goals

271
Q

utilitarian organization

A

members are paid for their contributions (i.e. a business)

272
Q

coercive organization

A

members do not a have a choice in joining (i.e. prisons)

273
Q

factors affecting attraction

A

(1) proximity
(2) similarity
(3) physical attractiveness

274
Q

inclusive fitness

A

defined by the # of offspring an organism has

- includes the survival + reproductive success of their genetic relatives - explains altruistic behaviour

275
Q

frustration-aggression principle

A

when someone is blocked from achieving a goal (or is otherwise frustrated) → anger → aggression

276
Q

game theory

A
  • used to predict large + complex systems (i.e. overall behaviour of a population)
  • success of an individual depends on both their own strategy + the strategies/decisions of other players
277
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A
  • describes how/when a person is influenced by a speech
  • 3 elements influence persuasiveness: message, target, and source characteristics
  • processed through 2 routes:

(1) central route: persuaded by the content + logic of the message; message has longer-lasting impacts; only when you are focused + have high motivation to think about the message
(2) peripheral route: persuaded by superficial characteristics (i.e. length of argument, orator’s attractiveness); message has no long-lasting effects; occurs when you have low motivation/ability to think about the message

278
Q

social cognitive theory

A

theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people + the environment

  • focuses on how cognition impacts our behaviour
  • studies reciprocal determinism: interactions between social, cognitive, and personality (behaviour) factors
279
Q

heritability

A

the amount of variation in a trait attributable to genetics

280
Q

Francis Galton’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • strong biological basis

- evaluated based on performance on certain cognitive tasks

281
Q

Charles Spearman’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • general intelligence (Spearman’s g)

- high general intelligence → good performance on a wide variety of cognitive tasks

282
Q

Alfred Binet’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • Stanford-Binet test

- administered tests to French schoolchildren

283
Q

Raymond Cattell’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • 2 types of intelligence
    (1) fluid: ability to solve new problems + think on your feet
    (2) crystallized: recall + apply info
284
Q

Howard Gardner’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • theory of multiple intelligences: interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical, spatial
285
Q

Edward Thorndike’s contributions to the study of intelligence

A
  • proposed the idea of social intelligence
  • led to idea of emotional intelligence: being well attuned to your emotions + those of others + guiding your behaviour using this info
286
Q

intellectual disability

A
  • IQ < 70

- difficulty functioning in everyday life

MCAT (9 decks)

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