Sociology 101 : Intro to Sociology Flashcards
Graying of America
Term for the rising population of those over 65 in America; caused by higher life expectancy and dropping death and birth rates
The 5 Stages of Grief
(Developed by Elizabeth __-__)?
Developed by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, these stages include denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance
Symbolic-Interaction Perspective
A perspective that regards aging as a social construct that is influenced in different ways by different cultures; Western cultures may view aging negatively and try to hide the effects
Activity Theory
An aging theory that holds that aging people will be happier if they remain active both mentally and physically
Denial
One of the stages of grief; while in this stage, patients may not accept their situation
Disengagement Theory
This theory states that older people disengage with society due to the loss of their friends, skills, credibility and personal relationships
Continuity Theory
A theory of aging that asserts that people will retain their internal and external structures, including their personality, beliefs and relationships, as they age
Structural-Functional Perspective
This perspective sees society as many parts that work together in a system; three different theories of aging are included in this perspective
Difficulties associated with retirement
Loss of income, diminished socialization and changes in identity
Ageism
An act of discriminating against older individuals; these actions can be obvious or harder to notice and can make the lives of older people more difficult.
Euthanasia
A term for assisting another person to end his or her life; can be used to refer to assisted suicide
Life expectancy
The length of time people are expected to live; increasing in America due to medical advances and improvements in technology
Structural-Functional Theories
(3 Theories)
Include the disengagement theory, the activity theory and the continuity theory
Characteristics of Capitalism
The economy in capitalism is comprised of buyers and sellers.
The goal in the economy is to increase profit.
Limited government oversight is allowed.
Continual production is expected.
Outsider Group
The less powerful group in a pluralist social model. These groups can include PACs and activists who lack political power.
Core Countries
In the world systems theory, core countries are powerful and capitalist. They are able to exploit peripheral countries and maintain the status quo with their power.
Tertiary Sector of the Economy
This sector of the economy deals with buying and selling services. Currently around 80% of the workforce is part of this service industry.
Marxist Social Power Theory
This theory deals with the struggle for economic power and the struggle between social classes. This theory posits that the government controls ideas, education, property, and the state.
Profession Characteristics
Serve an important social service
Secure a professional career
Demonstrate loyalty to society
Require special training
Draw members from a specific group
Oligarchy
In this type of government only a small number of people or a powerful group holds the power.
Disadvantages of Socialism
Limited opportunities for individualism
Can lead to a static economy
Consumers have fewer choices from which to choose
Monarchy
A form of government where leadership and power is inherited which was very common in the past but less so today. The two types of monarchy are absolute monarchy and constitutional monarchy.
World Systems Theory
Founded By: Immanuel __
What are the 3 kinds of Countries?
A theory created by Immanuel Wallerstein that believes the world is divided into three kinds of countries that are not treated equally: core, periphery, and semi-periphery.
Major U.S. Political Parties
Political parties in the U.S. include the dominant Republican and Democratic Parties as well as third parties, such as the Libertarian Party, the Constitution Party, and the Green Party.
Quaternary Sector of the Economy
This economic sector deals with intellectual activities like information technology, research, and education.
Authoritarianism
Authoritarian governments do NOT allow their citizens to participate in any way in the government. People are expected to obey their leaders no matter what.
Quinary Sector of the Economy
A part of the modern economy that includes high-level decision makers such as media executives, university presidents, and CEOs.
Political Action Committee
These committees, known as PACs, try to bring about political change by using money to influence politicians or political parties.
C. Wright Mills
Sociologist who believed that individual issues could be connected to societal problems; saw knowledge as a critical part of implementing social change
Hunter-Gatherer
Type of society where people are nomadic and rely on food that is available from nature, rather than producing it.
Double Consciousness
Feeling like your identity is split into multiple parts, making it hard to understand your true identity. Coined by Du Bois to describe the experience of blacks in a predominantly white U.S.
Scapegoat Theory
The theory that people will use their own prejudices to decide that other people are at fault for their problems
Functionalist Perspective
The theory put forth by Robert K. Merton and other functionalists stating that society is an organism which contains many parts, and each part has a specific function.
Theories (in Sociology)
In sociology, theories explain why society or people function in certain manners or why certain changes occur.
Dramaturgical Approach
Introduced by Erving Goffman, this is the theory that social interaction can be viewed as a theatrical performance.
Charles Horton Cooley
Cooley was a sociologist who studied human behavior. He coined the concept of primary groups, was a founder of the interactionist perspective, and created the theory of the looking glass self.
The three stages of development according to the Looking Glass Self Theory
- Imagining how we present ourselves to other people
- Imagining how others view us
- Developing a sense of self based on our perception of what others think
Reasons why Marx’s working-class revolution failed in larger countries
false consciousness; creation of labor unions; the presence of contradictry political ideologies; the rise of Communism
The Scientific Stage
The stage of society where most people believe that events that happen in the world can be explained using scientific principles.
Postmodern Society
Our current society, which is characterized by consumer goods and media, with a large emphasis with a use of technology
Organic Solidarity
The division of a large population into smaller, interdependent units
Symbols
Representations of concepts and beliefs in a society
Harriet Martineau
First woman sociologist; believed sociologists should not just study, but use their knowledge to promote change; used observation as part of her research
Symbolic Interaction Perspective
The sociological perspective that uses normal, everyday behavior and the interactions between people to explain larger phenomenon in society.
W.E.B. Du Bois
A sociologist who focused on studying society and how to make it more equal and just; was one of the founders of the NAACP
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer’s theory that those people who are the strongest will be most successful in society and the weaker should be left to die out. Based on Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Karl Marx
An important socialist thinker who believed you could understand society by understanding the struggles between the poor and the rich
Positivism
A theory by Comte that says societies have scientific laws and principles, similar to science
Bureaucratic Organizations (according to Max Weber)
Characteristics include: formal hierarchy, rules and regulations, specialized division of work, impersonal relationship between managers and workers, competence-based rewards, formal records.
Preoperational thinking
One of Jean Piaget’s stages of development. It occurs between age 2-3 until age 7, and involves partial development of logical thinking capacity. It explains children’s common misperceptions.
The latency stage
The last childhood stage in Erikson’s stages of identity formation. It is observed in children aged 6-12, and is characterized by a conflict between industry and inferiority.
Carol Gilligan
A student of psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg and major critic of his theories. Gilligan posited her own theories on morality, including her concepts of care-based and justice-based morality.
Formal Operational Thinking
Jean Piaget’s final stage of development, which is typically attained by ages 12-14. Children capable of formal operational thinking are able to solve complex cause and effect problems.
The muscular-anal stage
The second of Erikson’s stages of identity formation. It is observed in toddlers aged 1-3, and involves conflict between autonomy, doubt, and shame.
Sensorimotor intelligence
One of Jean Piaget’s stages of development. Children are born into this stage, which lasts until age 1 or 2.
Egocentrism
A characteristic exhibited by children in the preoperational stage of thinking, having to do with a difficulty accepting another person’s perspective.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
A set of stages of development regarding morality, theorized by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. These stages include the pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels of morality.
Stages of the Ethics of Care theory
A theory posited by psychologist Carol Gilligan, which argued the existence of a care-based morality, and a justice-based morality.
The oral-sensory stage
The first of Erik Erikson’s stages of identity formation. This stage occurs during the first year of life, and is characterized by a conflict between trust and mistrust of others.
The middle adulthood stage
The seventh of Erikson’s stages of identity formation. It is observed between the ages of 40 and 65, and is characterized by a pondering of one’s own generativity versus stagnation in life.
The post-conventional stage
The last of Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which is not attained by all individuals. It involves the highest sense of morality, including with regards to the rigidity of laws.
Lawrence Kohlberg
A psychologist who was interested in how children develop their moral senses. He is best known for his three stages of moral development, which he argued account for all levels of human morality.
Sigmund Freud
A famous psychologist from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, who posited a theory on personality involving the id, ego, and superego.
The looking-glass self
A concept posited by sociologist Charles Cooley. It argued the existence of three stages of behavioral and personality development, including imagining, interpreting, and developing self-concept.
The adolescence stage
The fifth of Erikson’s stages of identity formation. It commences at approximately age twelve, and is characterized by a desire to discover one’s own identity.
The id
Sigmund Freud’s aspect of personality involving childish, impulsive, and thoughtless behavior.
Patrilineal descent
A family lineage system which traces descent through only the paternal side of the family.
Latent function
Refers to a function which is generally not explicit or intended.
Sacred
Refers to objects or experiences which are holy or sacred in nature.
Four basic stages of traditional family life
The traditional familial pattern, as studied by sociologists, which includes the stages of courtship, marriage, child rearing, and aging.
Medicaid
A form of public health insurance in the United States also known as Medicaid. It distributes tax dollars to the elderly and disabled.
Nuclear family
In Western societies, this is a type of family which consists of a pair of adults and their children.
Rituals
Formal, ceremonial behaviors which have religious significance.
Neolocality
A neutral post-marital living arrangement, located closest to neither side of the marriage.
Liberation theology
A Christian political movement which advocates liberation from unfair social, political, and economic conditions. It is a combination of political activism and Christian principles.
Eating disorders
Diseases characterized by dangerously unhealthy eating tendencies, the most common of which include anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Eating disorders are many times more prevalent in women than men.
Health Maintenance Organization
An organization which arranges and provides full medical care to subscribers, in exchange for for a fixed cost. In certain cases, it also requires referrals from healthcare professionals.
Civil religion
A pseudo-religious loyalty which binds individuals in secular fashion. It exemplifies the impact of religion on non-religious aspects of society.
Creeping credentialism
Refers to the steady increase in credential requirements in the labor market, especially in higher-income nations.
Manifest function
Refers to a function which is clear, obvious, and intended.
Profane
Refers to an object or an experience which is ordinary, and not holy or sacred in nature.
Nontheistic religions
Refers to religions that do not emphasize a belief in any particular deity or deities, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.
Patrilocality
Describes a couple that lives with or near the male’s family following marriage.
Matrilocality
A post-marital living arrangement located with or near the female’s side of the family.
Extended family
In Western societies, this type of family consists of two or more nuclear families that are related.
Bilateral Descent
A family lineage system which traces descent through both the maternal and paternal sides of the family.
Pygmalion effect
A phenomenon which demonstrates the effectiveness of a positive self-fulfilling prophecy in achieving one’s target.
Universal health care
Otherwise known as socialized medicine, this system entails government ownership and control of medical facilities and services. It exists in Canada and the U.K., though not the United States.
Matrilineal descent
A system of family lineage which traces descent through only the maternal side of the family.
The marriage stage of traditional family life
The second stage of traditional family life, during which couples legally unite in order to begin a family.
Buddhism
The fourth largest religion in the world, and an example of a nontheistic religion.
Emigration
A type of migration when a person leaves the country of their birth to settle in a different country.
Stage 3 of a social movement
Bureaucratization - paid members replace volunteers, a clear chain of command and authority develops, and additional fundraising occurs; can also include a loss of focus or money
Redemptive Social Movement
A type of social movement that looks to affect total personal transformation; often religious in nature
4 Stages of social movements
- Emergence
- Coalescence
- Bureaucratization
- Decline
Gesellshaft
A society that forms because of a mutual goal
Time period of America’s Industrial Revolution
1830-1890
Convergence theory
The theory that people form crowds because they want to act in a specific way; opposite of contagion theory, which says crowds actually cause the behavior
Rumor
Information that has not been verified and is informally passed between people
Mob
A crowd of people that is easily convinced to use violence or aggression in their solution to a problem
Stage 4 of a social movement
A crowd of people that is easily convinced to use violence or aggression in their solution to a problem
Reformative Social Movement
A type of social movement that looks to change only some specific attributes of a society, not the entirety of how society functions
Contagion Theory + Convergence Theory = _____ Theory
Emergent Norm
Revolutionary social movements
Social movements that want cause radical change by replacing the existing social order
Mass hysteria
An occurrence when multiple people suffer from the same kinds of symptoms of hysteria.
4 types of crowds
Casual - loose & spontaneous
Conventional - deliberate planning with defined norms
Expressive - formed around a specific, emotional, event
Acting - enthusiastic & involved with achieving a goal
Factors that contributed to the Industrial Revolutions in the US and England
Available jobs in new industries; higher wages for industrial labor than agriculture; new inventions like the typewriter and light bulb; religious persecution; cheap farmland
Stage 2 of a social movement
Coalescence - moving from general ease to well-define discontent, including a better understanding of who/what is causing the discontent; plans are developed and implemented
Stage 1 of a social movement
Emergence - preliminary stage with almost no organization; potential members of the movement are unhappy but haven’t yet acted
Calculation for Population Growth Rate
(Births - Deaths) + (Immigrants - Emigrants)
Relationship between sociology and anthropology
Both sociology and anthropology study society, but anthropology specifically focuses on change over time
Emergent Norm Theory
Theory that states the behavior of a specific crowd has special social norms which are created by the members of that crowd
Demography
Field of social science which studies the causes and effects of population changes
Urbanization
When big groups of people settle in small, concentrated areas, creating cities
Environmental issues
Destructive consequences humans have on the natural environment
Structure Strain Theory
Robert K. Merton’s theory to explain deviance; states that crime is an expected response to the inability to obtain economic success in American society
Social loafing
The idea that people will expend less effort in a group to achieve a goal because they believe other members of the group will take care of things
Democratic decision-making
A system where the group discusses and comes to a consensus; the leader still has final say, but uses the group to help inform their choice; effective but slower
Primary groups
A type of social group that is close, usually small, and include long-standing intimate relationships; examples include nuclear families and close friends.
Types of conformity
Social conformity (conformity because of desire to fit in); normative conformity (conformity because of wanting to be liked); informational conformity (conformity because of wanting to be right)
Coercive organizations
A type of formal organization which uses force to retain control over those who belong to the organization
Theoretical rationality
Conceptualizing abstract concepts in the world around us; requires deductive and inductive reasoning
Social-conflict theory
A theory that believes society is composed of unequal groups, and this inherent inequality creates conflict and change.
Normative organization
A type of formal organization which keeps control because its members share a commitment based in morality; members are voluntary and join because they think it is the right thing to do
Practical rationality
Logic used to go about daily tasks in a practical way
Ways to reduce groupthink
Define rules; ask for full participation; divide into smaller groups; urge healthy debate; discuss all alternatives; ask outside experts; ask leaders to share at the end; have a devil’s advocate
George Ritzer’s 4 principles of McDonaldization
Predictability (always get what you expect); calculability (quantity over quality); efficiency (fast, easy service); control (specific directions lead to specific results)
Groupthink
When a group values consensus over effective decision making for the sake of avoiding conflict
Substantive rationality
People use this to choose between right and wrong - morals and values play a strong role
Formal organizations
A purposefully built group with specific goals; characteristics include: a division between power and labor; written rules for the organization; a process for replacing group members
Laissez-Faire decision-making
A style where leaders allow groups to make decisions completely independently
Reasons for social loafing
Sucker effect - avoiding working harder than other group members, which would make you a ‘sucker’; free-rider effect - giving less effort because you think your work won’t affect the outcome
Utilitarian organizations
A type of formal organization which uses bartering to keep control - members can gain something by being a part of the group
Iron cage
Weber’s term for an overly-rationalized society; people in such a society are trapped by lack of freedom because everything is overly-organized and there is no way to stray from expectations
Feminism in sociology
The theoretical perspective that describes society as historically unequal between women and men and looks to obtain equality
Secondary groups
A type of social group that can vary in size; they are more impersonal than primary groups, and usually last for a shorter period of time; often found at school or work
Characteristics of groups larger than 3
Decrease in intimacy and loyalty; decrease in obligation and responsibility; fewer contributions to the group by each member; harder to reach agreement; increase in stability
Authoritarian decision-making
A system where leaders make the major decisions for a group themselves; can be helpful when timeliness or efficiency are important
Reference groups
A type of group that people look to for cues on behavior; thought of as role models or standards against which to measure yourself
Structural-functional theory
The theory that society is essentially a system of interconnected parts that affect each other and work together to function
In-group vs. out-group
An in-group is the group of people that you belong to; an out-group is a group that you do not belong to
Formal rationality
Used when choosing whether something is right or wrong - based on formal rules and laws
Symbolic interactionism theory
The sociological theory that sees society as a reflection of the interactions between people; evaluates small interactions to make conclusions about larger society
In-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation
In-group favoritism - bias towards one’s in-group, feeling they are special; out-group derogation - believing out-groups are inferior; illustrated by a 1954 study by Muzafer & Carolyn Sherif
Instrumental leadership vs. expressive leadership
Instrumental leadership - specifically about achieving goals and making sure tasks get done; expressive leadership - focus on group cohesion and positive atmosphere
Obedience
Following orders (without question) in response to authority; differs from conformity, which occurs willingly in response to a group
Radical feminism
A type of feminism that believes in the complete elimination of the concept of gender; most extreme form of feminism
4 principles of social stratification
(1) It is a trait of society; (2) continues from generation to generation; (3) it exists in all societies, but is structured differently; (4) related to both inequality and beliefs
Hostile environment
Type of sexual harassment that can include gestures, words, or other acts that make someone feel uncomfortable
Primary sex characteristics
Internal and external genitalia
Scapegoat theory
A way for people to blame other people for their own issues
Sexual orientation scale
Theory that sexuality is flexible and works on a sliding scale between completely heterosexual and completely homosexual with bisexuality in the middle; popularized by Alfred Kinsey
Societal Protection
A type of punishment where the offending party is removed from society - for example, being imprisoned.
Components of the ABC Model
affect, behavior, cognition
Organized crime
a group or business that deals in illegal goods or services
Social identity theory
The theory that people become prejudiced as a method of making them feel better about themselves by making their own identity more attractive.
Intergenerational mobility
A social position difference that takes place over several generations
Miscegenation
Mixing of races by way of procreation
Institutional sexism
When a society continually gives advantages to one sex
Liberal feminism
A change in social status that happens in one person’s lifetime
Intragenerational mobility
A change in social status that happens in one person’s lifetime
Socialist feminism
A type of feminism that urges sweeping social change, including ending capitalism, because it supports the status quo; focus on economics and politics
Blue collar crime
Crimes committed by the average American; large range, but often highly visual and disproportionately punished
Secondary sex characteristics
Non-genital differences in sex, such as hormones, height and hair
Kibbutz
A small Jewish community that attempts to create a utopic society; important principles include gender equality and all members working hard on behalf of the community
Caste system
A closed social stratification system where a person’s caste is hereditary
Social minority
A group of people that have been subordinated by society and are distinguished by something physical or cultural
Reasons sexual violence against men might not be discussed
By U.S. law, men cannot be raped and people are unclear on the concept; sexual violence is seen as a crime of strength, and men seen as stronger than women; there are fewer resources for men
Types of polygamy
Polygyny - a relationship involving one man and more than one woman; polyandry - a relationship involving one woman and more than one man
Hostile sexism
The belief that women like to control men; characterized by bitterness and anger
Projective labeling
Use of past deviant behavior as a predictor of future actions
Ambivalent sexism
Believing that some women are pure and should be treated well, while others are bad and hence should be treated poorly
Old-fashioned sexism
Belief that men are fundamentally superior to women
Corporate crime
Crimes committed by a company or someone on behalf of that company
Rehabilitation
Societal punishment for those who commit crimes that involves helping change their ways to prevent future rule-breaking
Cultural feminism
A type of feminism that focuses on the ways society rewards masculine behavior, and how it could be improved by promoting feminine behavior
Modern sexism
Belief that (1) sexism is no longer an issue, (2) as such, programs designed to help women are pointless and (3) sexism claims are just made to cause trouble
Sex vs. Gender
Sex describes the way women and men are biologically different. Gender describes how masculine or feminine a person feels.
Pluralism
The existence of 2 or more groups of people in 1 place; some outcomes of pluralism include assimilation, miscegenation, segregation, and genocide
White collar crime
Crime committed by those who have high social standing; frequently committed as part of their work; usually non-violent and money-related
Race vs. ethnicity
Race - determined by biologically inherited traits
Ethnicity - refers to a common cultural heritage
Retribution
When society punishes someone who has committed a crime in such a way that they suffer as much as the suffering that occurred as a result of their crime
Quid pro quo harassment
A form of sexual harassment where someone wants something in exchange for sex
Intersexed
Describes people with an unusual chromosomal makeup, such as XYY or XXX; traditional is XX (women) and XY (men)
Benevolent sexism
Believing that women are more pure than men and should be treated delicately
Class system
A system of social stratification which is open and organizes society into classes that have access to different resources
Assimilation
When the language and/or culture of a group starts to reflect that of another’s
Deterrence
When punishment is used to try and convince people that committing their crime would not be worth the consequence
4 reasons for social punishment
Retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and social protection
Impression Management
Efforts by individuals to control how they are seen by others.
Elements of Self Presentation
Self presentation can include:
Impression management
Idealization
Nonverbal communication
Questions Asked by Sociologists
How culture is created and maintained
How to make an ideal society
Ways that people are the same and different
Social institutions
Ascribed Status
The status into which an individual is born or is given involuntarily, such as race, nationality, or gender. Agrarian societies typically place high value on this status.
Different Ways to View Culture
Various theoretical views of culture:
an interconnected system
an unequal system
a system that is influenced by human biology as well as social constructs
an evolved set of behaviors
Agents of Socialization
The factors that influence childhood socialization, including: family, day care, school, religion, peers, workplace, neighborhood, and mass media. Interaction must occur for socialization.
Role Exit
This process occurs when an individual exits a status and role that was important to his or her identity. It may require considerable adjustments.
Role Conflict
This problem arises when an individual has role obligations from multiple statuses that conflict with each other, leading to increased stress.
Cultural Norms
Act as guidelines for expected behavior. Norms may exist as written laws, folkways that address social interactions, or mores that focus on acceptable moral behavior.
Mores
A cultural norm that is so powerful it doesn’t need to be written down for people to know it is unacceptable. For example, you don’t have to be told that cannibalism is wrong.
Material Culture
Material culture includes physical objects that are created by people, such as art, writings, food, building, clothing, etc.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that an individual’s own culture is right and natural, while other cultures are viewed as bizarre and wrong.
Counterculture
A form of subculture that stands against certain parts of the dominant culture that surrounds it. Anarchists and polygamists provide examples of counterculture.
Social Isolation
The term for when someone is completely cut off from all aspects of social contact.
Role Set
The different social roles that a single individual may perform when interacting with different people.
Ideal Culture vs. Real Culture
Ideal culture refers to the norms and values that a culture purports to possess.
Real culture deals with the norms and values the culture actually demonstrates.
Role Strain
A problem that can arise when different obligations within a person’s single role come into conflict with one another.
Nonverbal Communication
A method of communicating without words. People can use gestures, facial expressions, and even tone of voice to communicate this way.
Structural-Functional Theory
An approach to understanding culture that states that culture is an interconnected, intricate structure which helps support human needs and gives people meaning.
Cross-sectional research design
A type of research design that allows you to study a group one time. This allows you to meet with a large amount of people, but you can’t study them over time.
Longitudinal research design vs. cross-sectional research design
Cross-sectional research allows you to study a large number of people quickly, while longitudinal research studies people over a long period of time.
Positive correlation
A correlation where both measured variables change in the same direction, for example, both variables improve or both worsen at the same time.
Qualitative research methods
This type of research deals with the study of information that can be observed, but not easily measured, such as behavior. It may also be referred to as descriptive research.
Ways to check research study validity
Correlation coefficient
Steps in positivist sociological research
Uses of ethnographies
Ethnographies can be used to:
Consider cultural norms
Understand behaviors
Look at social trends and social interactions
Study families, other relationships and organizations
Ethnography
Ethnography uses long term studies lead by a researcher who isn’t an expert. The goal is to learn about different cultures and create a piece of writing.
How to assess research study reliability
Studies can be deemed reliable if the same results can be achieved at different times or when the study is conducted by a different person in a different location.
Positivist sociology
Positivist sociology applies the scientific method to the study of sociological concerns.
Case study
This form of research involves spending a lot of time studying a single person. You will obtain a lot of information about the individual you’re studying.
Critical sociology
This aspect of sociological study deals with trying to learn about society in order to improve it.
Clustered sample
A sample of the population drawn from people in the same geographical area.
Experiments
Used by researchers when they need to compare 2 or more different groups.
Quantitative research methods
Quantitative research involves using numerical data that results in objective facts. This form of research doesn’t deal with the observation of physical or emotional reactions.
Interpretivist sociology
A form of sociological study that focuses on the ways that individuals interpret the world around them.
Reliability across time
A study that obtains the same results when conducted at different times.
Longitudinal research design
A form of study that takes place over an extended period of time. Drawbacks can include increased costs and difficulty securing volunteers.
