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MASTER - Study.com Provided Cards > Philosophy 101 : Intro to Philosophy > Flashcards

Philosophy 101 : Intro to Philosophy Flashcards

1
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

This kind of reasoning works from the top down. It argues that if you have a true conclusion, all of your premises also have to be true.

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2
Q

Sense-Data

(Coined by __ Russell)

A

The term used by Bertrand Russell to describe things we know through sensation. This can include the shape, color or texture of an object.

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3
Q

Philosophical Argument

A

This is made up of multiple assertions that are designed to prove that something you claim to be true is true.

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4
Q

Plato’s Dialogues: Modern Issues

A

Because these records were created by Plato to record what Socrates said, it is hard to be sure whose thoughts are being conveyed.

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5
Q

Anaximenes

(A __-socratic Philosopher)

A

A Presocratic philosopher who studied under Anaximander. He thought the elements of the world were all made out of air.

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6
Q

Anaximander

A

This philosopher was a student of Thales. He thought there was a constant substance that made up everything, but that this constant had no characteristics until it was separated into pieces.

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7
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

The type of reasoning you use when you support your conclusion with your premises. This may be referred to as bottom-up reasoning.

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8
Q

Apology: Philosophical Meaning

A

This term can be used to refer a statement made to provide a defense or explanation for one’s actions when used in philosophy.

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9
Q

Argument Structure: Premise

A

You use this to set out the rationale you’ll be using to reach your conclusion in an argument.

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10
Q

Branches of Philosophy: Aesthetics

A

This branch of philosophy focuses on art and the fundamental nature of things like beauty.

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11
Q

Intuition

A

This may be referred to as a gut feeling about a situation. It may be useful when making snap decisions related to safety, but it can also be influenced by bias and prejudice.

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12
Q

Critical Thinking Skills: Skepticism

A

You demonstrate this skill associated with critical thinking when you question new information instead of just accepting it blindly.

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13
Q

Socrates: Criminal Charges

A

This philosopher faced criminal charges because he was accused of impiety and the corruption of young people. He faced these charges because he made others look bad.

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14
Q

Branches of Philosophy: Metaphysics

A

Students of this philosophical branch ponder whether or not anything is real. It looks at abstract ideas.

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15
Q

Philosophy

A

This field of study focuses on how we comprehend our existence. It also looks at how we determine things to be true, real or good. It comes from Greek words that mean ‘love of wisdom.’

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16
Q

Branches of Philosophy: Logic

A

Approaching this philosophical branch requires you to assess arguments to determine if the reasoning used to support them was correct.

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17
Q

Anecdotes

A

A story that is based on the experience of a single person. These often lack proof, critical thinking and direct correlational relationships, so you should not base decisions on them.

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18
Q

Heraclitus of Ephesus

A

This Presocratic philosopher thought the universe was under constant pressure from forces trying to pull it apart. He believed logos, or natural law, was all that kept things together.

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19
Q

Thales

A

He is thought to be the first philosopher from Greece. He thought that everything in the universe was made of water in one form or another.

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20
Q

Plato’s Dialogues

A

These are records of Socrates’ debates and conversations. They were written by Plato, as Socrates did not write this philosophy down on his own.

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21
Q

Subjective Opinions

A

These are views that we make with small amounts of information. They may be based on our emotions or assumptions.

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22
Q

Argument Structure: Conclusion

A

This comes at the end of your argument and sums everything us. It develops as you link your premises together to reach a single claim.

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23
Q

Critical Thinking Skills: Curiosity

A

The critical thinking skill that drives people to look for evidence and to learn more about the world while accepting new ideas.

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24
Q

Critical Thinking Skills: Humility

A

This critical thinking skill relates to our ability to acknowledge mistakes after we are shown evidence that proves our ideas were wrong.

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25
Q

Socratic Method

A

An educational style that utilizes conversations wherein students are asked things that challenge their assumptions. Open discussions in a classroom would be an example of this.

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26
Q

Reasoning

A

You take this action when you develop a valid argument from your thoughts.

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27
Q

Bertrand Russell

A

A philosopher who focused on reality and questioned whether it could exist apart from our perceptions.

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28
Q

Branches of Philosophy: Epistemology

A

You may be interested in this branch of philosophy if you would like to study knowledge itself.

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29
Q

Socrates

A

A philosopher who believed that he had more wisdom than many other people because he could acknowledge his ignorance. He thought knowledge was true all the time.

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30
Q

Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Ignorance

A

Individuals who make a claim and try to move the burden of proof onto someone else are demonstrating this logical fallacy.

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31
Q

Appeal to Popularity Fallacy: Dangers

A

This fallacy raises risks because it fails to consider issues besides popularity. It ignores whether a choice is moral, correct or even the best option.

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32
Q

Logical Fallacy: Post Hoc

A

You face this logical fallacy if someone claims that one event causes another directly without being able to prove the causation with evidence.

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33
Q

Logical Fallacy: Slippery Slope

A

A logical fallacy that argues that if we let one thing happen, it will result in a bunch of other things happening, finally leading to an ultimate and inevitable outcome.

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34
Q

Causation

A

This takes place when one event directly causes another event or some kind of effect.

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35
Q

Logical Fallacy: Equivocation

A

Individuals commit this logical fallacy when they use the same word multiple times in an argument while failing to use a consistent meaning each time.

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36
Q

Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Popularity

A

This logical fallacy occurs if you try to decide on the correct choice of action based on public opinion, or what others think you should do.

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37
Q

Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Nature

A

We see this logical fallacy when someone takes a fact that relates to nature and then tries to connect it to a moral statement that is not adequately supported by facts.

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38
Q

Circular Reasoning

A

The act of treating the conclusion of an argument as one of the pieces of evidence in the argument. Someone who says they made cookies so they must be good at making cookies would be using this.

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39
Q

Philosophical Fallacy

A

An argument that is flawed or faulty in some way. Knowing about these can improve your arguments and help you avoid wrong conclusions. These may be used intentionally to convince others.

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40
Q

Logical Fallacy: Begging the Question

A

We see this logical fallacy in situations where someone uses circular reasoning by restating a claim and treating it like evidence.

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41
Q

Logical Fallacy: Denying the Antecedent

A

The logical fallacy that occurs when person A claims that person B cannot understand something because they did not previously do or experience something else.

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42
Q

Correlation

A

This refers to a relationship that exists between one thing and another thing. This means the things are connected in some way, but do not necessary cause one another.

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43
Q

Logical Fallacy: False Dilemma

A

The logical fallacy that occurs if someone lists options and argues that one of them has to be correct if the others are untrue. This ignores the possibility of additional options.

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44
Q

Logical Fallacy: Black or White

A

A subtype of the false dilemma logical fallacy. This occurs when you artificially limit a person’s choices to two options, when other options exist.

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45
Q

Logical Fallacy: Ad Hominem Attack

A

A logical fallacy that occurs when you personally attack the individual you are arguing with, instead of focusing on disproving their argument. Calling someone stupid would be an example.

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46
Q

Metaphysical Freedom

A

This represents the power to select the opportunity you want to pursue throughout your life.

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47
Q

Libertarianism / Indeterminism

A

This theory argues that people have freedom on both a metaphysical and circumstantial level. This means we are responsible for our own actions and events aren’t predetermined.

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48
Q

Jean Paul Sarte

A

An existentialist from the 20th century who wrote Being and Nothingness and Existentialism and Humanism.

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49
Q

Jean Grimshaw

A

This philosopher argues that men and women are not born with differences in intellect. She wrote the book The Idea of a Female Ethic.

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50
Q

Simone de Beauvoir

A

She authored The Second Sex and argued that throughout history women have been placed into the role of the ‘other.’

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51
Q

Materialism

A

You support this theory if you believe that there is only the physical world and that nothing beyond this world exists.

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52
Q

David Hume

A

An empiricist who argued that ideas are faint images related to our belief, reasoning or thinking. He thought our impressions served as the basis for these.

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53
Q

Determinism

A

A philosophy that says we lack metaphysical freedom but that we have circumstantial freedom. This means we decide how to act in everyday life, but that our overall life is predetermined.

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54
Q

Circumstantial Freedom

A

You have this kind of freedom if you can carry out an action without facing obstacles. If you can go get yourself a cup of coffee, you demonstrate this freedom.

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55
Q

Essentialism

A

A philosophical viewpoint that asserts that you are born with set patterns of thought and reasoning that serve to define your gender.

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56
Q

Baron d’Holbach

A

This philosopher was alive in the 18th century. He supported a theory called materialism and thought our choices were just caused by physical impulses in the brain.

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57
Q

Skepticism

A

A belief that argues that we cannot attain true knowledge.

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58
Q

Empiricism

A

This is the belief that we derive knowledge based on things that we pick up with our senses. This means we have to taste, smell, or otherwise use our senses to learn about something.

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59
Q

Compatibilism / Soft Determinism

A

This blends aspects of determinism and libertarianism. It argues that our metaphysical actions are predetermined, but that we are responsible for actions involving circumstantial freedom.

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60
Q

Augustine: Belief in the Soul

A

A philosopher who thought the soul was immortal and that, along with the body, it made up a person. He thought souls possessed truth.

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61
Q

Immanuel Kant: Inner Self

A

This is the part of our self that holds our rational intellect and our psychological state, per Immanuel Kant.

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62
Q

Plato: Belief in the Soul

A

He believed that your soul was eternal and existed before your body was created. He also thought that your soul moved to another body when you died.

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63
Q

Socrates: Belief in the Soul

A

This philosopher saw the soul as immortal. He thought your soul was separated from your body when you died.

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64
Q

Gilbert Ryle

A

This philosopher from the 20th century wrote The Concept of Mind and came up with the ‘ghost in the machine’ idea.

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65
Q

John Locke: Principle of Individuation

A

This principle argues that people maintain their identities as time passes.

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66
Q

Empiricism

A

Supporters of this theory assert that knowledge can only come from our physical senses.

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67
Q

Materialism

A

Philosophers who support this idea argue that matter is the only thing that exists.

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68
Q

Rationalism

A

This theory argues that knowledge and self are based on mental perception and reason, not experiences or our physical senses.

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69
Q

Rene Descartes

A

A philosopher who thought our consciousness originated in our mind, which existed separately from the physical body. He supported dualism.

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70
Q

Ordinary Language Philosophy

A

A field of study that focuses on how distortion to word meanings can lead to false assumptions and other issues.

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71
Q

Paul Churchland

A

This philosopher argued that the mind was not the seat of identity based on changes to a person’s personality after traumatic brain injuries.

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72
Q

Immanuel Kant: Representation

A

This is mental imagery that builds on sensations we experienced in the past. This is connected to our outer self.

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73
Q

Category Mistake

A

This logical error occurs when you categorize something improperly.

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74
Q

Immanuel Kant: Apperception

A

According to Kant, this is the process we use to connect new ideas to ideas that we already understand.

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75
Q

Immanuel Kant: Outer Self

A

Kant argued that this portion of our self contained the physical world as well as our senses.

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76
Q

Dualism

A

A concept that says reality is split and has two parts. These parts are usually thought to be the physical body and the mind.

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77
Q

John Locke: Day Man and Night Man Theory

A

A theory that states that being a person requires you to recall being that person.

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78
Q

Bundle Theory

A

David Hume developed this theory, which argues that an object’s real parts are made up of the properties we are capable of sensing.

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79
Q

Personal Identity: Persistence

A

This focuses on the way we exist over a period of time and how this existence can be proved.

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80
Q

Arguments for the Existence of God: Ontological

A

This argument for the existence of God says that God must exist, because a God that exists would have more power than a God that does not exist.

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81
Q

Friedrich Nietzsche: Ubermensch

A

Nietzsche used this term to refer to superior people who have rejected Christian rules and accepted his four philosophical guidelines.

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82
Q

Kierkegaard’s Theory of Human Existence: Aesthetic Stage

A

The first stage of Kierkegaard’s theory of human existence. You value pleasure more than anything else during this stage.

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83
Q

Theodicy

A

This term refers to the act of attempting to settle the issue of evil and God.

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84
Q

Bertrand Russell: Teapot Argument

A

This addresses the argument that God must exist because we can’t disprove his existence. It says that the myth of God only seems reasonable due to its age.

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85
Q

Patriarchy

A

In this social system, the authorities in power are men.

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86
Q

Eastern Religions

A

Religions that may be polytheistic. These religions also tend to support monism, or the idea that the unseen world and the physical world are not distinct from one another.

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87
Q

David Hume: Ideas

A

These are images drawn from our reasoning and thinking, according to David Hume.

88
Q

Mary Daly

A

A feminist professor of philosophy who argued that the Bible’s use of masculine language to describe God ends up treating the male as God.

89
Q

Irenaeus

A

He supported the idea that our souls are made better and improved by evil.

90
Q

William James

A

A philosopher who thought you could accept belief without evidence, because this kind of belief assists us in getting through life.

91
Q

Arguments for the Existence of God: Moral

A

You use this argument about the existence of God if you believe that humans can only understand morality if they know what evil is because they can compare it to God.

92
Q

Arguments for the Existence of God: Cosmological

A

An argument that says that everything has a cause and that the final cause of everything is God.

93
Q

John Hick

A

This philosopher argued that humanity is not yet fully created. He thought that our souls were still partially formed.

94
Q

David Hume: Impressions

A

Hume used this term to refer to things that we use our senses to derive.

95
Q

Western Religions

A

These religions are usually monotheist in nature and they typically support the idea of dualism.

96
Q

Augustine

A

A philosopher who argued that man produced evil. He thought God brought about a perfect world that was then corrupted by Adam and Eve.

97
Q

Bertrand Russell

A

This philosopher argued that God does not exist. He said that historical belief in something does not give it legitimacy, because people will always disagree with an ideology.

98
Q

Kierkegaard’s Theory of Human Existence: Ethical Stage

A

This is the second stage of Kierkegaard’s theory of human existence. People in this stage allow the rules to guide their lives.

99
Q

Kierkegaard’s Theory of Human Existence: Religious Life Stage

A

The third and last stage of the theory of human existence developed by Kierkegaard. Religion becomes personal at this stage.

100
Q

Friedrich Nietzsche

A

A philosopher who believed in existentialism. He did not believe in the Christian God or Christianity in general. He also frowned on alcohol.

101
Q

Arguments for the Existence of God: Teleological

A

Individuals who use this argument to support the existence of God say that creation has to be purposefully designed because it is so intricate.

102
Q

Hinduism

A

This nontheistic religion is the oldest religion still practiced today. We consider this a nontheistic religion even though some practitioners believer in one or more gods.

103
Q

Dharma

A

This system focuses on an individual’s moral and ethical responsibilities. It is followed by people who practice Hinduism.

104
Q

Religious Sect

A

These organizations are not connected to society as a whole. They are usually made up of a few people who are trying to reach spiritual perfection. The Amish are an example of this.

105
Q

Judaism: The Covenant

A

Jewish people view this as their relationship with God. They believe it is through this relationship that God chose them as his people.

106
Q

Buddhism

A

This is the world’s fourth largest religion. It is nontheistic and is most common in Asia. Many of this religion’s sacred texts can be found in the Tripitaka.

107
Q

Pantheism

A

You have this outlook on religion if you believe that the Universe and God are one entity.

108
Q

Karma

A

A Hindu belief that says individuals are rewarded or punished based on their intentions and the way they act.

109
Q

Moksha

A

Believers in Hinduism think that once you reach this state you cease being reborn, as you have attained spiritual perfection.

110
Q

The Second Vatican Council / Vatican II

A

This meeting occurred in 1962 and is considered to be the most important Catholic event to take place in the 20th century.

111
Q

Vedas

A

These are the oldest texts of the Hindu religion. They are also considered to be the most sacred.

112
Q

Church

A

A type of religious organization that connects well to the society that surrounds it. These groups have rules and their leaders have to be trained formally in some way

113
Q

Confucianism

A

A nontheistic religion that served as China’s official religion for around two millennia. This religion does not support the idea of reincarnation.

114
Q

Polytheism

A

This is the belief in the existence of multiple gods. Over the course of human history, this belief has predominated worship because it offered a lot of flexibility to pre-scientific peoples.

115
Q

Nontheistic Religions

A

Religions that focus on the ethical actions of people. The main focus of these religions is not on a particular god or god(s).

116
Q

Torah

A

The first five books of the Old Testament of the Bible. This document is the source of the Ten Commandments.

117
Q

Five Pillars of Islam

A

These are the important regulations that guide the lives of Islamic people.

118
Q

Aristotle’s Metaphysics: Material Cause

A

This deals with the physical properties associated with an object when discussing Aristotle’s metaphysics.

119
Q

Aristotle’s Metaphysics: Final Cause

A

In Aristotle’s metaphysics, this refers to the cause that deals with a thing’s ultimate reason for existing.

120
Q

Plato: Innate Ideas

A

Plato believed that these were things we were just born knowing. We did not have to learn them, we understand them from birth.

121
Q

Pythagoras

A

He developed mathematical theorems but is connected to the study of philosophy because he thought you could get to truth and reality by looking at numbers.

122
Q

Aristotle’s Metaphysics: Formal Cause

A

The cause for being that focused on how a thing was designed or structured, according to Aristotle’s metaphysics.

123
Q

Occam’s Razor

A

A principle that argues that the simplest explanation for an occurrence or an event has the highest probability of being correct.

124
Q

Principle of Non-Contradiction

A

This tells us that something true can’t come into conflict with something we already know to be true due to our senses of experiences.

125
Q

Plato: Allegory of the Cave

A

This piece of writing focuses on Plato’s theories about forms and stages of life. It is contained in Plato’s The Republic.

126
Q

Roger Bacon

A

This philosopher is sometimes called the ‘Father of the Scientific Method.’ He placed a lot of importance on conducting experiments and was born in 1214.

127
Q

A Posteriori Knowledge

A

You gain this kind of knowledge from things that you experience.

128
Q

Helen Longino

A

A philosopher who argues that science will be more objective when subjected to criticism and scrutiny from the public.

129
Q

Falsifiable

A

This principle states that you must be able to show that a scientific statement is false. This means you can’t make a claim that can’t be tested and verified.

130
Q

Gottfried Leibniz: Principle of Sufficient Reason

A

This principle states that you can find a way to explain every true proposition or state of affairs. This means everything has a reason for occurring.

131
Q

Rene Descartes

A

A philosopher from France known as the ‘Father of Modern Philosophy.’ He is known for declaring, ‘I think, therefore I am.’

132
Q

Paradigm Shift

A

This takes place if a new approach or scientific framework allows us to question older theories about the sciences.

133
Q

Aristotle’s Metaphysics

A

This focuses on the things Aristotle thought caused change in the world. He believed there were four of these causes.

134
Q

Correspondence Theory

A

A theory that asserts that a true statement has to mesh with facts that are already accepted as correct.

135
Q

Aristotle’s Metaphysics: Efficient Cause

A

When we discuss Aristotle’s metaphysics, this is the thing that causes something to occur or come about.

136
Q

Francis Bacon

A

We consider this man to be the ‘Father of Empiricism.’ He was born in England in 1561 and believed that sensory experiences led to knowledge.

137
Q

John Locke: Primary Qualities

A

Locke believed these to be an object’s undeniable qualities. These are things like shape or size.

138
Q

Aristotle

A

He lived in ancient Greece and was a famous philosopher who focused on metaphysical issues.

139
Q

Plato: Forms

A

This philosopher believed that our world was built from reflections of things that were more ideal or perfect. He called these perfect items forms.

140
Q

Blaise Pascal

A

This philosopher argued that belief in God was reasonable. He said that God may or may not exist, and that, if he does not, belief will not affect our lives.

141
Q

Rene Descartes

A

A philosopher from France in the 17th century. He thought our minds contained something beyond physical matter and that they were immaterial compared to the rest of the world.

142
Q

David Hume

A

A philosopher who mostly supported traditional skepticism. He thought most of our beliefs couldn’t be rationally justified, but that we had to accept some beliefs in order to function.

143
Q

A Priori Knowledge

A

This is a kind of knowledge that we obtain through the use of reason. It is not grasped through our experiences.

144
Q

Skepticism / Academic Skepticism

A

This is the idea that we are unable to possess certain and complete knowledge about anything found in the world around us.

145
Q

Total Skepticism

A

This kind of skepticism argues that we can’t know anything at all with complete certainty.

146
Q

Conditions of Epistemology: Justification

A

The condition of epistemology that deals with demonstrating that the action you want to take is reasonable or acceptable.

147
Q

Modified Skepticism

A

You practice this form of skepticism if you think you can know some things, but not all things.

148
Q

Pragmatism

A

A philosophical viewpoint that asserts that truth is just the thing that works for you on a level that is considered practical.

149
Q

Analytic Judgment

A

Immanuel Kant used this term when referring to statements that just provided a definition of something.

150
Q

Pyrrhonian Skepticism

A

Individuals who follow this type of skepticism argue that you can’t even say with complete confidence that can you know anything.

151
Q

Phenomenology

A

A way to gather information that draws primarily on first-person records of individual experiences.

152
Q

Hinduism

A

This religion is widely practiced in Nepal and India. It is notable because it doesn’t have a unifying philosophy or set of religious principles.

153
Q

Active Intellect

A

A concept that is considered the force that leads to humans developing knowledge and accessing divine ideas. It exists outside of God and humans.

154
Q

Conditions of Epistemology: Belief

A

A condition of epistemology that deals with the state we reach when we accept that a statement is truthful.

155
Q

Buddhism

A

An Eastern religion that argues that many of the things we consider to be true are only illusions. This can lead to suffering if people try to obtain things they think will bring them happiness.

156
Q

John Locke

A

A philosopher who wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. He thought people were born as blank slates and that we gained knowledge through reflection and sensation.

157
Q

Constructivism

A

This philosophical view argues that our knowledge is built from our experiences. It has heavily impacted fields such as anthropology, sociology, education and psychology.

158
Q

Taoism

A

A religion that first originated in China. It focuses on the ultimate truth about the world and all things in it, though this truth is thought to be undefinable.

159
Q

Synthetic Judgment

A

A statement that is made up of both a definition and additional information, according to Immanuel Kant.

160
Q

Conditions of Epistemology: Truth

A

This condition of epistemology is satisfied if you cannot discern any false propositions in a statement.

161
Q

Allison Jaggar

A

A theorist who argued that observation and reason were given too much focus in philosophy and that more attention should be paid to emotion.

162
Q

Double-Consciousness

A

A concept developed by W.E.B. DuBois. It looks at how a person’s internal understanding of themselves is impacted by their ethnic identity.

163
Q

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

A

The philosopher who developed the term monads and used it when referring to what he believed to be the universe’s primary elements.

164
Q

Al-Farabi

A

This philosopher lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is sometimes called ‘the Second Teacher’ in relation to Aristotle, who is seen as ‘the First Teacher’.

165
Q

Metaphysics

A

This philosophical branch focuses on studying reality itself.

166
Q

Anna Julia Cooper

A

She focused on oppression and how it relates to both ethnicity and gender.

167
Q

Empiricism

A

This philosophy argues that we must utilize our sense experiences in order to know anything. It contrasts with rationalism.

168
Q

Normative Chauvinism

A

Individuals who look at the world with this view believe that philosophy can only be approached using their traditions.

169
Q

Philosophy: Forms

A

These are the ideas that build reality. They are ultimate ideals and, according to Plato, cannot be fully understood. However, he thought philosophy could help us grasp them to a degree.

170
Q

Virtue Ethics

A

This ethical approach was of interest to Plato. It puts a lot of focus on the moral character of an individual.

171
Q

Ethical Absolutism

A

This ethical stance asserts that all people should be subject to morals that are specific and certain.

172
Q

St. Augustine

A

A man who described natural law as the way God’s law was revealed to man with the use of reason. St. Thomas Aquinas shared this belief with him.

173
Q

Rational Egoism

A

An approach that states that you must use rational principles to uncover your self-interest and then act on this selfishness, which is not seen as immoral. This view was supported by Ayn Rand.

174
Q

Ethics

A

This philosophical branch is primarily concerned with issues relating to morality.

175
Q

Values

A

The things in your life that you think are worthwhile or in some way important.

176
Q

Utilitarianism

A

A philosophical viewpoint that says that actions that cause the greatest number of individuals to experience increases in pleasure are the best.

177
Q

Ethics of Care

A

Carol Gilligan asserted that girls learned this, while boys learned the ethics of justice. She thought this dealt with responding to what others needed in real life.

178
Q

Thomas Hobbes

A

This thinker was greatly interested in natural law. Unlike other people who studied this, he used a descriptive approach and thought that morality could change if given time.

179
Q

Deontology

A

We use this term when discussing the study of duty.

180
Q

Absurdity

A

Philosophers consider this to be the drive to locate meaning in something that has no meaning to offer.

181
Q

Prescriptive Morality

A

This kind of morality deals with telling people how they should act or behave.

182
Q

Morals

A

These are rules that guide the way people should behave, or that deal with how they think they should behave.

183
Q

Stoicism

A

A philosophy from long ago that argues that virtue leads to happiness and that vice leads to unhappiness. This was supported by the writings of Marcus Aurelius.

184
Q

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics: Moral Responsibility

A

This states that we are only responsible for actions we committed voluntarily. This means that if you do something good because you’re forced to, you should not be praised.

185
Q

Ayn Rand

A

A writer who believed people should be rational egoists. She thought this would make people want a stable society and act it ways that would support this kind of world.

186
Q

Baruch Spinoza

A

He supported ethical subjectivism, or the idea that there isn’t an objective standard available for ethical behavior. He thought ethical statements just covered things we disapproved of.

187
Q

Ethical Relativism

A

An ethical viewpoint that argues that people cannot be forced to follow a moral standard that is universal and unbending. This says that culture is responsible for shaping a person’s morals.

188
Q

Hedonist

A

An individual who lives his or her life by attempting to maximize the amount of pleasure he or she experiences.

189
Q

Descriptive Morality

A

The type of morality that considers how individuals believe they should act. It does not offer an opinion about these actions.

190
Q

Divine Command Theory

A

A theory that sees moral laws as originated with God. Supporters of this theory may or may not be concerned with proving the existence of God.

191
Q

Eudaimonia

A

This term refers to happiness and well-being. It was a term used by Plato to describe what we should try to achieve in human life.

192
Q

The Communist Manifesto

A

This was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It covers the political theory of Marxism, which says that class struggles lead to social changes.

193
Q

Cicero

A

A Roman politician who believed virtue was necessary to ensure the Republic survived. He lived from 106-43 B.C.

194
Q

Plato

A

He thought society should exist as a single, large family, with property held publicly, instead of privately. He believed a monarchy would be better than allowing everyone to do what they want.

195
Q

Proletariat

A

This is the term used by Marx and Engels to describe the working-class people in a society.

196
Q

Adam Smith

A

This philosopher was very interested in economics. He supported laissez-faire economics, which supported small amounts of regulation by the government.

197
Q

Voltaire / Francois-Marie Arouet

A

This philosopher worked to advocate for rights like freedom of speech and freedom of religion. He wrote a large number of versatile texts.

198
Q

The Republic

A

A book written by Plato to record conversations with Socrates. In this text, justice is seen as the act of providing the government with anything it is owed.

199
Q

Immanuel Kant

A

A German philosopher who was concerned with individual rights and who thought that governments should be constitutional republics.

200
Q

Rene Descartes

A

A philosopher from France who played a role in setting up rationalism and who is famous for saying, ‘‘I think, therefore I am.’’

201
Q

John Locke

A

This philosopher believed people had to agree on a method of government and that they were capable of overthrowing rulers that were unjust, as living without these rulers was preferable.

202
Q

Social Contract

A

This theory argues that the government is created by citizens who sacrifice some freedoms to have other freedoms protected by living under a government.

203
Q

Thomas Hobbes

A

A philosopher who studied the social contract. He argued that societies lacking a civil government existed in a state of nature that was dangerous and brutal

204
Q

Aristotle

A

A scholar from ancient Greece known as ‘‘the Philosopher.’’ He developed the concept of telos, which represents the reason a thing exists.

205
Q

Confucianism: Filial Piety

A

This reflects a high level of respect for your older relatives. It is sometimes referred to as ancestor worship and plays a large role in this religion.

206
Q

John Rawls

A

This philosopher wrote A Theory of Justice. He also developed the idea of a thought experiment, or a way to look at new ways of thinking with a person’s imagination.

207
Q

The Republic: Education

A

This book states that people should receive training in a variety of concepts and should be required to serve in the military for two years before going through another 15 years of schooling.

208
Q

Bourgeoisie

A

The term used to refer to the wealthy class of people who have ownership of the means of production. Engels and Marx used this term.

209
Q

Confucianism: Jen / Ren

A

This attribute reflects humaneness or goodness in Confucianism. It focuses on the inward thoughts of a person.

210
Q

Invisible Hand

A

An idea put forth by Adam Smith that asserts that individuals trying to help themselves typically end up bettering society.

211
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft

A

She wrote the essay A Vindication of the Rights of Women. She argued that women should be well-educated and advised women to avoid false sensibility.

212
Q

Socrates

A

This philosopher came from ancient Athens. His beliefs were recorded in The Republic by one of his students. He thought that societies should be led by philosopher-kings.

213
Q

Susan Moller Okin

A

She wrote Justice, Gender and the Family. She thought that gender expectations had to be removed for a society to be just.

214
Q

Confucianism: Li

A

The principle of Confucianism that deals with a person’s outwardly displayed behavior. It may be translated as ritual or propriety.

215
Q

The Renaissance

A

A time period that lasted from roughly the 14th through 17th centuries. Classical ideas from Greek and Rome were revived in this period.

216
Q

Marxist Revolutions

A

Uprisings designed to take property from the rich, abolish private property rights and destroy class distinctions. They have occurred in countries such as Korea, Cuba, Vietnam and China.

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