Sociological Theories and Social Institutions Flashcards
1) (Structural) Functionalism
Founder: Émile Durkheim (founder of sociology)
Level: macro
Definition: society is a complex system, individual parts work together to maintain solidarity, order, balance and social stability
Flaws: assumes equal and functioning society, individual circumstances not considered
Key words: dynamic equilibrium, common consciousness, anomie
Dynamic Equillibrium
occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
Collective consciousness
how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes, all which operate to unify society
Manifest Function
official, intended and anticipated consequences of a structure, and are beneficial
Latent Function
Consequences of a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned. Can be beneficial, neutral or harmful
Social dysfunction
a process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society
2) Conflict Theory
Founder: Karl Marx and Max Weber (founders of sociology)
Level: macro
Definition: society is a competition for limited resources, individuals and groups compete for social, political and material power.
-Marx = looked at the economic conflict between social classes, capitalism encourages private ownership. Felt that workers’ revolution was inevitable, and capitalism would be replaced by socialism
Flaws: too extreme, too focused on economics
-Weber = refined and critiqued Marx’s tenets. Did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable. There could be more than one source of conflict, such as agreement with authority, high rates of social mobility and low rates of class difference
Key words: imbalances, class struggle, inequality
Capitalism
encourages competition and private ownership
Bourgeoisie
the ruling class owns the means of production
Proletariat
working-class, provides labour
is oppressed and exploited by the capitalist bourgeois class, paying members a fraction of the production value of their labour
Hegemony
coerced acceptance of the values, expectations and conditions as determined by the capitalist class
Class consciousness
exploited workers’ awareness of the reasons for their oppression
Communism
all means of production are owned by all workers equally
Protestant/Puritan work ethic
the widely-held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of godliness
Rationalization of Society
our increasing concern with efficiency (achieving max results with the min amount of effort)
3) Symbolic Interaction
Founder: Herbert Mead
Level: micro
Definition: emphasizes the ways by which individuals actively shape their world through their understanding and subsequent behavioural responses to the meanings they attribute to the societal symbols through which individuals define their reality. Examines the relationships between individuals and society by focusing on the exchange of information through language and symbols.
-Mead = interested in identity and the development of. the self, developed through 3 activities (language, games, play). “I” represents individualistic self, “me” represents the social self
Key words:
Thomas Theorem
theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation
4) Social Constructionism
Level: both macro and micro
Definition: “reality” is not inherent, but socially constructed. argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions. Focuses on social constructs that change across cultures and within a single culture over time. Also analyzes the effects of mass media and contends. that. mass media corporations have become the main mechanisms by which our social institutions transmit culture to preserve power and authority
Key words:
Stocks of knowledge
allow us to classify objects and actions we observe quickly and routinely structure our own actions in immediate response (notification)
5) Feminist Theory
Level: both micro and macro
Definition: Concerned with the social experiences of. both men. and women and the differences between these experiences. Described as a collection of social movements with the purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights, roles, statuses.
Key words: gender inequality
Intersectionality
posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression do not exist isolated. and separated from each other, but instead have complex, influential and interwoven relationships
6) Rational Choice and Social Exchange theories
Level: usually micro
Definition: individuals seek to maximize the benefits they gain and minimize the disadvantages they sustain in all of their social interactions.
Key words: maximize benefits/rewards and reduce costs/punishments
Utilitarianism
based on 2 assumptions (1) that the individual. humans are rational in their actions and (2) that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self-interest
Social Institutions
complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behaviour of people. Examples include education systems, family, religions, government and health care systems
Family
defined as a set of. people related by blood, marriage, adoption or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serve 5 functions
1) reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behaviour
2) protection
3) socialization - passing down norms and values of society
4) affection and companionshio
5) social status - social position is often based on family background and reputation
Nuclear family
consisting of direct blood relations
Extended family
grandparents, aunts, uncles and others are included
Monogamy
refers to forms of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other
Polygamy
allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
Polygyny
refers to a man married to more than one woman
Polyandry
refers to a woman married to more than one man
Endogamy
refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group
Exogamy
refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group
Kinship
how we think about who we are related to. May include extended family and members of the community or friends (godparents, close family friends)
Kin
considered a cultural group rather than a biological one, do not have to live together
Bilateral descent
Kin groups involve both maternal and paternal relations
Patrilineal descent
preference for paternal relations
Matrilineal descent
preference for maternal relations
Patriarchy
men have more authority than women
Matriarchy
women have more authority than men
Egalitarian Family
spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
Cultural differences
many cultures emphasize the importance of extended family, often living with grandparents, cousins…
- some cases “kin” who are non-blood related members of the community may be considered part of the family
Divorce
the divorce rate has generally risen in the US due to several factors
- there is a growing social and religious acceptance of divorce
- more and more opportunities are becoming available for women to succeed autonomously making divorce a real possibility
- the financial and legal barriers to divorce have lessened over time as it has become more common
Cohabitation
Couples living together without getting married. Sometimes these couples will have children and do many of the same things “traditionally” married couples do, but remain legally unmarried
Lesbian and gay relationships
often engage in all of the same behaviours that a “traditionally” married couple might, including property ownership and raising children
Family violence
dramatic example in which one member of. the family is directly responsible for the threat through their mistreatment of another person, often in attempt to gain power, leaving the target fearful and powerless
Child abuse
involves vioulence directed towards a child target. There are 4 categories of child abuse:
1) physical abuse
2) emotional abuse
3) sexual abuse
4) neglect
Domestic abuse
a.k.a dating abuse or spousal abuse, involves violence directed toward one partner of an intimate relationship, where the abuser is the second partner
Elder abuse
involves violence directed toward an older target
Educational institutions
Manifest function: systematically pass down knowledge. and to give status to those who have been educated
Latent function: socialization, serving as agents of change, maintaining social control
Hidden curriculum
often conflicts with the manifest curriculum, unintentional lessons about norms values and beliefs
Educational segregation
widening disparity between children from high-income neighbourhoods and those from low-income neighbourhoods
False consciousness
lack of such awareness that they are a group that is exploited by the wealthy
Looking-glass self
self is. shaped by others and interactions with others and the perception of others. Individuals shape themselves on this perception, tending to confirm expectations
Social construct
anything that appears natural or obvious to the people but is largely the invention of a given society
Socialization
dynamic ongoing process by which an individual internalizes the values, beliefs and norms of their society and learns to function as a member of that society
First-wave feminism
focused on womens’ suffrage; right to vote, own property, equal rights within marriage, work for wage
Second-wave feminism
focused on womens’ social liberties; gender equality, equal pay, sexual de-stigmitization, reproductive rights
Third-wave feminism
focused on intersectionality, how different social identities interact
Anomie
occurs when societal values do not adequately guide individual or group behaviour
Ways education promotes equality
more education is associated with less inequality
Ways education promote inequality
hidden curriculum, teacher expectancy, educational segregation and stratification
Teacher expectancy theory
students tend to match teacher expectations (positive or negative)
Educational stratification
education can also reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities
Religion
involves beliefs and practices related to the sacred
Ecclesia
a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society. Recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions. Often integrated into political institution
Church
a type of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society. Membership can be by birth or joining
Sect
a religious organization. that is dinstinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
Cult/new religious movement
a religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different. lifestyle
Secularization
process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies
Fundamentalism
second response to modernist societies in which there is a strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherance to basic religious doctrines
Christianity
largest single faith in the world. Monoatheistic and followers also believe in prophets (Jesus as the son of God), an afterlife and a judgement day
Islam
second largest religion in the world. Followers are muslim, monoatheist (Allah) and its followers believe in prophets (with the final one being Mohammad), an afterlife and a judgement day
Hinduism
polytheistic religion (many gods), there are major deities such as Shiva and Vishnu and also believe in reincarnation, or rebirth after death
Buddhism
teaches overcoming cravings for physical or matetial pleasures primarily through meditative practices
Judaism
monoatheistic and formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam. Jews believe that God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and that if certain rules were followed (the ten commandments), God would bring paradise to Earth
Religiosity
refers to the extent of. influence of religion in a persons life
Government
makes and enforces the rules of a society and regulates relations with other societies
Economy
arranges the production, distribution and consumption. of goods, services and resources
Rational-legal authority
legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the constitution.
Traditional authority
from custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Charismatic authority
power of their persuasion
Iron law of oligarchy
states that all forms of organization develop oligarchic tendencies, especially in large groups and complex organizations. Some power will be concentrated, thereby establishing a new ruling class
Aristarchic governments
controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; public not involved in most political decisions
Aristocracies
those ruled by elite citizens like those with noble births
Meritocracies
those ruled by the meritocrious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions
Autocratic governments
are controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power. Include dictatorships, and fascist government
Dictatorship
ruled by one person
Fascist government
those ruled by a small group of leaders
Monarchic governments
controlled by. a single person, or a selective small group, who inherited their leadership role (kings and queens)
Authoritarian government
consist of unelected leaders; the public might have some. individual freedoms, but have no control over representation
Totalitarianism
those in which unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control
Democratic governments
consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision making power through either direct decisions or representation
Direct democracies
governments in which there is direct public participation
Representative democracies
governments in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives
Political parties
formal groups of people that share the same prinicple political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance
Oligarchic governments
less clear as leaders can be elected or unelected; the public might have. the power to elect representation, but people have little influence in directing decisions and social change. Controlled by a small group of people with shared interests
Republican governments
consider their countries to be public conerns and are thus democratic in nature. People have the. supreme power in these societies
Federalistic governments
include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups
Parlimentary governments
include both executive. and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of. the executive branch (ministers) are accountable. to members of the legislative
Presidential governments
also include organizing branches, as well as head of state
Anarchy
societies without a public government “lawlessness”
Command/planned economies
economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (socialism and communism)
Market economies
economic decisions are based on the market (“supply and demand”) and the means of production. are often private
Mixed economies
blend elements of. command and market economies with both public and private ownership
Traditional economies
consider social customs in economic decisions
Capitalism (economy)
economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for profit
Socialism (economy)
economic system where resources and production are collectively owned
Communism (economy)
specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, class and states
Welfare capitalism
most of the economy is private with the exeption of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
State capitalism
system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
Division of labour
occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meed all of his or her needs alone. Different occupations emerge as a response
Mechanical solidarity
allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience
Organic solidarity
allows societies to integrate through a division of labour, which leads to each person having a different personal experience
McDonadization
refers to the principles of the fast-food industry dominating other sectors of society
Medical model of disease
emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness
Medicalization
process by which a condition comes to be re-conceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment
Social model of disease
emphasizes. the effect one’s social class, employment status, neighbourhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet and other factors can have on personal health
Primary care
care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management
Secondary care
acute care, as well as specialty care, which is often recieved following a referral from a primary care providor
Tertiary care
very specialized form of health care, based on consultations with specialist care providers. Ex. cancer hospitals, burn centers, palliative care facilities
Social epidemiology
study of how social organization contributes to. the prevalence, incidence. and distribution of disease across and within populations
Food desert
area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores
Sick role
when a person is ill, he or she is not able to be a contributing member of society, a type of deviance. has 2 rights and 2 obligations. Rights include: being excempt from normal social roles and they are not responsible for his or her condition. Obligations include: sick person should try and get well and should seek treatment and cooperate with medical professional
Availabliltiy
presence of resources
Accessibility
ability to obtain existing resources
Social condition
social determinants of health such as availability of food supply, drug use, access to quality education, unemployment, crime rates, and access to healthcare
Favourable conditional factors
improve overal quality of life
Social problems
social conditions with a negative impact
Social isolation
is the complete or near-complete lack of contact with others in society
Socioeconomic gradients in health
theory that there exists a proportional increase in health and health outcomes as socioeconomic status increases
